Footnotes

The commentator explains this passage by the illustration that in the act of felling a tree the effect is produced by the intermediate act of raising the axe by some sentient agent, but that in the case of the burning of a forest, the fire is produced by the friction of the dry branches of trees without the intervention of any sentient agent.
Even as the wind indicates the dry twigs to ignite, adds the commentator.
Literally, the releaser from bonds.
Refers to the curse pronounced on Viswamitra by the son of Vasishtha, when the former acted as the priest of Trisanku. The curse was that Viswamitra would partake of canine flesh by officiating as the priest of one who himself was the partaker of such flesh. It is said that at a time of great scarcity, Viswamitra was obliged to resort to dog's flesh for food, and that as he was about to cook it, Indra pounced upon it and took it away.
The constellation of the Great Bear.
The Pole Star.
Matanga was begotten upon a Brahmana woman by a Sudra father.
Charu is properly an oblation of rice, barley, and pulse, boiled with butter and milk, for presentation to the gods in a sacrifice or ordinary worship.
The meaning seems to be that if Destiny be unfavourable, there need not be much fear with respect to this world. But if one be wanting in Exertion, great must his fear be with respect to the next world, for happiness can never be obtained in the next world unless one acts righteously while here.
The commentator explains that hitam tad vada are understood in the last line.
The commentator explains that the allusion here is to the adage that swans in drinking milk mixed with water always drink the milk leaving out the water. Learned Brahmanas are like swans for in discoursing upon even the topics of the world they select what is good and instructive but reject what is evil and sinful, or, as the Commentator puts it, they know the difference between what is soul and what is not soul.
Vrijinam is explained by the commentator as 'Sankatam, phalasa iti yavat' etc.
i.e., one should keep oneself aloof from both Energy and Penances, for both these can consume, if troubled or interfered with. By 'Energy' is meant both physical and mental force. It belongs to the Kshatriya as Penances belong to the Brahmana.
The commentator thinks that by Krishna, the Island-born Krishna or Vyasa is meant.
The sense is that such a Brahmana, if his expectation be not gratified, is competent to consume the person that has falsely raised that expectation.
Akshyayyam is fire, because it is fire that eats the food offered to the Pitris and makes it inexhaustible.
The sense is that as a physician cures diverse ailments of the body, after the same manner, a gratified Brahmana cures diverse faults of the kingdom in which he continues to live honoured and gratified by the king.
Santirishta is the rishti or benefits caused by santi. The commentator cites Medini for explaining that 'rishti' is 'kshema'.
Tapasye is Tapah karishye. There being no indirect narration in Sanskrit, such forms cannot be helped. A Kulapati is an ascetic that owns ten thousand ascetics for his disciples. Kanwa, the foster-father of Sakuntala, was a Kulapati.
i.e. renouncing service which is the duty ordained for person of his order, he desired to betake himself to universal Renunciation or Sanyasa, without, however, the lingam or marks of that vow.
Sankalpa-niyamopetah means Sankalpasya nigraha, of chittavritti nirodha; tena upetah.
No Brahmana, the scriptures declare, should ever assist a Sudra in the performance of his religious or Pitri rites. Those Brahmanas that violate this injunction fall away from their superior position. They are condemned as Sudra-yajins. Here the Rishi, by only giving directions to the Sudra as to how the Pitri rites were to be performed, became a Sudra-yajin. There are many families to this day whose status has been lowered in consequence of such or similar acts of indiscretion on the part of their ancestors.
Atharva Veda Veda cha implies that the Atharvans were not generally included under the term Veda by which the first three Vedas only were meant.
Punyaha-vachana is a peculiar rite. The priest or some other Brahmana is invited. Gifts are then made to him, and he utters benedictions in return upon the giver. Yudhishthira used to invite every day a large number of Brahmanas and make them very valuable presents for obtaining their benedictions.
Or rather, superior. Guru is used to denote any senior as well as preceptor.
The Diksha is that rite which one passes through by way of preparation for those sacrifices and vows that one seeks to perform.
Satyanrite is equivalent to trade or barter.
Sanguptamanoratheshu is explained by the commentator as persons who conceal their real sentiments by acting differently. The reference is to hypocrites.
Vali (sing. of valayah) means anything offered or dedicated to the deities. The sense of the second line is that the goddess of prosperity resides in that house in which flowers are offered to the deities instead of animal life.
The belief is that a man remains childless in consequence of his sins. If these sins can be washed away, he may be sure to obtain children.
I give, in the affirmative form of speech, the three mental acts that are directed to be avoided. In the original, these are given in the negative form. Absence of coveting the possessions of others is the act that is directed to be followed. So compassion for all creatures is prescribed; and, lastly, the belief is directed to be entertained that acts have fruits, for the Vedas declare as such. He that does not believe that acts have fruits disbelieve the very Vedas which of course, is a sinful act.
The sense is this: wealth is always agreeable to all persons but Vasudeva is more agreeable than wealth. This attribute of being more agreeable than wealth itself, that is being agreeable to all the universe,--is due to the favour of Mahadeva. The commentator explains it in an esoteric sense, coming to the conclusion that arthat priyataratwancha means the attribute of becoming the Soul of all things in the universe.
The allusion is to Krishna's penances for gratifying Mahadeva in order to obtain a son. The son so obtained,--that is, as a boon from Mahadeva, was Pradyumna begotten by Krishna upon Rukmini, his favourite spouse.
It is not necessary to explain these names here. They have been fully explained in previous portions and will be explained later on in this very chapter.
Such verses are explained by the esoteric school in a different way. Bhavanam is taken as standing for Hardakasam, i.e., the firmament of the heart; adityas stand for the senses. The meaning then becomes,--'How can one that is merely a man comprehend Sambhu whom the senses cannot comprehend, for Sambhu dwells in the firmament of the heart and cannot be seen but by the internal vision that Yoga supplies.' Some texts read 'nidhanamadim meaning end and beginning.'
It is said that for obtaining a worthy son, Krishna underwent the austerest of penances on the breast of Himavat, with a view to gratifying the god Mahadeva. The son obtained as a boon from Mahadeva was Samva, as would appear from this and the succeeding verses. Elsewhere, however, it is stated that the son so obtained was Pradyumna begotten upon Rukmini. The inconsistency would disappear if we suppose that Krishna adored Mahadeva twice for obtaining sons.
Dhava is Anogeissus latifolia. Wall is Conocarpus latifolia Roxb. Kakubha is otherwise called Arjuna which is identified with Terminalia Arjuna, syn. Pentaptera Arjuna. Kadamva is Nauclea cadamba, Roxb. Kuruveka is Barleria cristata, Linn. Ketaka is Pandanus odoratissimus, Linn. Jamvu is Eugenia Jambolana. Patala is Stereospermum suaveolens syn. Bignonia suaveolens, Roxb. Varunaka is Crataea, religiosa, syn. Capparis trifoliata, Roxb. Vatasanabha is Aconitum ferox, Wall. Vilwa is Aegle Marmelos. Sarala is Pinus longifolia, Roxb. Kapittha is Feronia Elephantum. Piyala is Buchanania latifolia. Sala is Shorea robusta. Vadari is Zisyphus jujuba. Kunda is Balanites Roxburghii, Punnaga is Callophyllum inophyllum. Asoka is Saraca. Indica, Linn, syn Jonesia Asoka, Roxb. Amra is Mangifera Indica. Kovidara is Bauhinia, accuminata Linn. Champaka is Michelia Champaka, Linn. Panasa is Artocarpus integrifolia, Linn.
Ganga is represented as the daughter of Rishi Jahnu, and hence is she known by the name of Jahnavi. What is meant by Jahnavi having been always represent there is that the goddess always stayed there in spirit, desirous of conferring merit upon those that would reverence her.
i.e., never searching for food but taking what they saw, and never using their hands also.
Graha is literally a planet; here, Mandara who is likened to an evil planet in consequence of the mischief he did unto all.
Yoga in verse 84 is explained by the commentator as meaning the power of creation. Chandra-Surya-parjanya-prithivyadi-sristi-samarthyam. Similarly, by Saswatam Valam is meant that power which arises from Brahmavidya.
Surabhi is the celestial cow, the original progenetrix of all kine in Heaven and on Earth.
A Sanyasin is one that bears the stick as the badge of the mode of life he has adopted. Chatrin is the king. Kundin is one with the calabash. The meaning is that it is Mahadeva who becomes the Sanyasin or the mendicant on the one hand and the monarch on the other.
Every person belonging to the three superior orders bears the Upavita or sacred-thread as his badge. The deities also, including Mahadeva, bear the Upavita. Mahadeva's Upavita is made of living snakes.
Arupa is formless, or as the commentator explains, nishkala, i.e., without parts, being indivisible. Arupa is of the form of multifarious acts or operations or effects in the universe. Adyarupa is Hiranyagarbha.
The commentator explains that by saying that Maheswara is in the heart, etc., what is stated is that he is the several cases of which Jiva is made up while in his unemancipate state, viz., the Annamaya kosha, the pranamaya kosha, the Manomaya kosha, and the Vijnanmaya kosha. What is meant by Yogatman is that he is the Soul or essence of Yoga of the Chidachidgranthi, i.e., the Anandamaya kosha. By Yogasanjnita is meant that he is Yoga or the Twam padarthah.
The meaning seems to be this: the man that is not devoted to Mahadeva is sure to be subjected to misery. His distress will know no bounds. To think that such a man has reached the lowest depth of misery only when from want of food he has to live upon water or air would not be correct.
Bhuta-bhavana-Bhavajnam is one acquainted with both the bhavana and the bhava of all bhutas, i.e., all the living creatures.
Without the Srutis, He cannot be comprehended, for he is above all dialectics or arguments. The object which the Sankhya system has in view, flows from Him, and the object also which the Yogins have in view has its origin in Him.
Mahadeva, as spoken of as Brahma, first filled Space with his energy. Space forming, as it were, the material with which everything else was created. Having filled Space as it were with creative energy, he created the primeval egg and placed Brahma or the Grandsire of the universe within it.
Tanmatras are the subtile elements, those which we perceive being gross ones.
Here Mahadeva is represented as Supreme Brahman. Hence, the Being that created Brahma, Vishnu, and Rudra, derived his power to create from Mahadeva. Thus Mahadeva is Unmanifest Brahma.
Sampadayitum is aisaryyena samyojayitum. The difficulty lies in the first line; the ablative is to be taken as yabartha or lyablope.
This is an instance of crux; adhipati is a verb of incomplete predication, implying etya or encountering.
Here the compassion of Mahadeva is shown. The commentator explains that eshu refers to these words; chatanachetanani would include all animate and inanimate existences. The word adi following implies heaven and all unseen entities. Avyaktamuktakesa is a periphrasis for jiva; avyaktam aspashtam yathasyattatha muktah bhanti tirohitam nitya-muktatwama sya is the explanation offered. This is, no doubt correct. The sense then is that all this has flowed from Maheswara and exists for being enjoyed by Jiva.
The allusion is thus explained by the commentator; once upon a time the seed of Mahadeva fell upon a blazing fire. The deity of fire removed it, unable to consume it. The seed, however, thus removed became converted into a mountain of gold. Haimagiri is not Himavat or the mountains of Himalayas as the Burdwan translation wrongly renders it.
Ardhe sthita kanta refers to the transformation of Mahadeva into a form half of which was male and half female, the male half being the half of his own usual form, and the female half the form of his dear spouse Uma or Parvati. This transformation is known by the name of Haragauri.
The associates of Mahadeva are called Gana. Deva is in the vocative case. The Burdwan translator wrongly takes deva-ganah as a compound word and makes a mess of the meaning.
The Bombay reading is Vihitam karanam param. The commentator adopts it, and explains it as vihitam, ajnatam sat jnapitam; param karanam avyaktasyapi karanam. The Bengal reading, however, is not faulty.
The Bengal reading karmayoga is vicious. The Bombay text reads karmayajna which, of course, is correct. By karmayajna is meant that sacrifice which is performed with the aid of actual offerings of flowers and herbs and animals and libations of ghee, meat, etc. These are opposed to mental sacrifices or manasa yajna. It is curious to see that the Burdwan translator adheres to the vicious reading and misunderstands the meaning. Mahadeva transcends the fruits of action, i.e., he has no body unto which happiness and misery may attach.
The Bombay reading savikara-nirguna-ganam is correct. The Bengal reading having gunam (and not ganam) as the last word of this compound, is vicious. The Burdwan translator adheres to the vicious reading and wrongly renders the compound. K. P. Singha skips over it. Of course, ganam means sum or total. Rectodbhavam is arsha for Retasodbhavam.
Mahadeva's body is half male and half female. The male half has garlands of bones, the female half garlands of flowers. The male half has everything that is rejected by others; the female half has all things that are coveted by others. This particular form of Mahadeva is called Hara-Gauri.
Girimala is explained by the commentator as one that sports on hills and mountains.
All the texts have Bhavaghnaya. The correct reading, however, seems to be Bhagaghnaya, especially as the reference to Andhaka occurs immediately after.
Vishnu means here the foremost of sacrifices.
These articles must be offered to a visitor, whether he stands in need of them or not.
All the texts read Kshirodasagaraschaiva. The correct reading is Kshirodasagarasyaiva. The nominative may be construed with the previous line, but the genitive would be better.
The commentator does not explain what is meant by Vidyunmalagavakshakam. The word go means the Thunder-fire. Very probably, what is implied is that flashes of lightning and the Thunder-fire looked like eyes set upon that cloud. Go may also mean jyoti or effulgence.
Tadarpani is explained by the commentator as Twatsarupasyaprapika.
Kriti is Kriya, i.e., all acts that creatures do. Vikara is the fruits of kriya, i.e., joy or sorrow that creatures enjoy or endure. The Bengal texts read pralaya. The Bombay reading is pranaya. The latter is also the reading that the commentator notices, but when he explains it to mean tadabhavah, i.e., the absence of joy and sorrow, I think, through the scribe's mistake, the l has been changed into the palatal n. Prabhavah is explained as aiswaryya. Saswata is eternal, i.e., transcending the influence of acts.
Thou art the adi of the ganas. By ganas is meant ganayante sankhyayante iti ganah, i.e., tattwah.
The commentator explains this by saying that thou art the heavenly felicity which creatures earn by means of their righteous acts. Acts, again, are performed in course of Time whose divisions are caused by the Sun.
It has been explained in previous Sections that by success in Yoga one may make oneself as subtile as possible or as gross as possible. One may also attain to the fruition of all desires, extending to the very creation of worlds upon worlds peopled with all kinds of creatures. That Yogins do not create is due to their respect for the Grandsire and their wish not to disturb the ordinary course of things.
Satyasandhah is the Bengal reading. The Bombay reading is satrasatwah, meaning, as the commentator explains, satya-sankalpah.
Vigraham is explained by the commentator as visishthanubhanbhava-rupam or nishkalam jnaptimatram.
In verse 369 ante Upamanyu says that Krishna is to receive from Mahadeva sixteen and eight boons. The commentator, stretching the words has tried to explain them as signifying a total of eight, and eight i.e., eight are to be obtained from Mahadeva, and eight from his divine spouse Uma. The language, however, is such that this meaning cannot be put upon it without doing violence to it.
The commentator explains this as 'thou art the cleanser of all cleansing entities,' i.e., it is in consequence of thee, Ganga and the others have received the power of cleansing other things and creatures.
Adhyatma: that occupies the inner body. Adhibhuta: elements, prima, eyes, ears, etc.; Adhidaivata: sun, moon, etc. that control over the bhutas. Adhiloka--one occupying the lokas; Adhivijnana--one occupying the plane of consciousness; Adhiyajna--one conducting the sacrifices residing in the heart of the jivas.
i.e., they attain to Emancipation when they behold thee in the firmament of their own hearts, or succeed in identifying their own souls with thee.
The guha or cave in which Brahman is concealed is the heart of every living creature.
The worlds or regions commonly enumerated are Bhu, Bhuva, Swa, Maha, Jana, Tapa, and Satya. The eight well-known forms of Mahadeva are Water, Fire, Hotri, Sun, Moon, Space, Earth and Wind. In his form of water he is called Bhava; in that of fire, he is called Rudra; in that of Hotri he is called Pasupati; in that of the Sun, he is called Isana; in that of the Moon, he is called Mahadeva; in that of Space, he is called Bhima; in that of Earth, he is called Sarva; and in that of wind, he is called Ugra. Compare the benediction in Kalidasa's Shakuntalam.
The cave in which Mahadeva has been concealed is the cave of the Scriptures: probably, difficult texts.
The sense is that these persons have not to make any extraordinary efforts for beholding thee. Their devotion is sufficient to induce thee to show thyself unto them.
Devayana and Pitriyana are the two courses or paths by which the departed have to attain to their ends. Those going by the former reach the Sun; while those that go by the latter reach the Moon.
The first is that which is according to the rites inculcated in the Srutis; second is according to the procedure laid down in the Smritis, and the third is the way or manner constituted by Dhyana or meditation.
Vide Sankhya karika. With original Prakriti, the seven beginning with Mahat and Ahankara and numbering the five Tanmatras.
Both the vernacular translators render the last verse most erroneously. K.P. Singha skips over every difficulty. In the Anusasana, this characteristic of his is more marked than in the Santi. The Burdwan translators very rarely skip over a verse, but they are very generally in the wrong. Nilakantha explains that Devesah is Brahma. The meaning, therefore, is that Tandi said unto me those secret names which Brahma had applied unto the high-souled one or Mahadeva. The Bengal reading Devesa, in the vocative, is incorrect.
i.e., if recited, it destroys all fear or Rakshasas, for these either fly away at its sound or are even killed.
i.e., it has the merit that is attached to either Meditation or Yoga.
Both Sthira and Sthanu imply immutability or freedom from change.
The commentator explains that Bhava is here used in the sense of that from which all things now and into which all things merge when the universal dissolution comes. Or, it may imply, mere existence, without reference, that is, to any attribute by which it is capable of being described or comprehended.
i.e., Virat or vast or Infinite.
The task of rendering these names is exceedingly difficult. In the original, many of these names are such that they are capable of more than one interpretation. The commentator often suggests more than one meaning. Each name would require a separate note for explaining all its bearings. Niyata is literally one who is observant of fasts and vows and who has restrained his senses. Hence it means an ascetic. Mahadeva is an ascetic. Smasanu is either a crematorium, the place where dead creatures lie down, or, it may mean Varanasi, the sacred city of Siva, where creatures dying have not to take rebirth. Siva is both a resident of crematoria and of Varanasi.
Or, the universe is displayed in thee.
Probably, what is said here is that Mahadeva is the Pratyag Soul free from ignorance.
By Niyama is meant purity both internal and external, contentedness, with whatever is got, penances, Vedic studies, meditation on the Deity, etc.
Nidhi implies the largest number that can be named in Arithmetical notation. Hence, it implies, as the commentator correctly explains, the possessor of inexhaustible felicity and gladness.
Sahasraksha is either Indra or possessor of innumerable eyes in consequence of Mahadeva's being identical with the universe. Visalaksha is one whose eyes are of vast power, because the Past and the Future are seen by them even as the Present. Soma implies either the Moon or the juice of the Soma i.e. the libations poured in the sacrificial fire. All righteous persons, again, become luminaries in the firmament. It is Mahadeva that makes them so i.e., he is the giver of glorious forms to those that deserve them.
Many of these names require comments to be intelligible. Ketu is no plant but Hindu astronomers name the descending node of the Moon by that name. Hence Rahu is the ascending node of the Moon. Graha, is that which seizes; Grahapati is Mangala, so called for its malevolence, Varah is Vrihaspati or Jupiter, who is the counterself of Sukra or Venus. In Hindu mythology, Sukra is a male person, the preceptor of the Daityas and Asuras. Atri is Vudha or Mercury, represented as the sons of Atri. Atryahnamaskarta is Durvasas who was the son of Atri's wife, got by the lady through a boon of Mahadeva. Daksha's Sacrifice sought to fly away from Siva, but the latter pursued it and shot his arrow at it for destroying it downright.
Suvarna-retas is explained by the commentator as follows: At first he created water and then cast his seed into it. That seed became a golden egg. It may also mean that Mahadeva is Agni or the deity of fire, for gold represents the seed of Agni.
The sense is this: Jiva carries that seed of acts, i.e., Ignorance and Desire, with him. In consequence of this seed, Jiva travels from one world into another ceaselessly. This seed, therefore, is the conveyance or the means of locomotion of Jiva. Mahadeva is Jiva. The soul is called the rider, and the body is the car that bears the Soul on it.
Ganapati is Ganesa, the eldest son of Mahadeva. The Ganas are mighty beings that wait upon Mahadeva. This make up the first hundred names. The commentator takes Avala and Gana together.
Digvasas means nude. The Puranas say that for stupefying the wives of certain ascetics, Mahadeva became nude on one occasion. The real meaning, however, is that he is capable of covering and does actually cover even infinite space. In the sense of nude, the word means one that has empty space for his cover or vestments.
The meaning is that with thee Knowledge is penance instead of actual physical austerities being so. This is only another way of saying that thou hast Jnanamayam Tapah.
Sataghni a killer of hundred; Wilson thinks it was a kind of rocket.
Harikesa means one having the senses for one's rays, i.e., one who displays all objects before the soul through the doors of the senses. The meaning is that Mahadeva is he through whose puissance the mind succeeds in acquiring knowledge through the senses.
Krishna is explained by the commentator thus. Krish is a word signifying Bhu or Existence. The letter n (the palatal one) signifies nivritti. Hence Krishna is anandatanmatra.
Kaparddin is thus explained by the commentator Kam Jalam pivati iti kapah. So called because of the incident noted in the text, for the matted locks of Mahadeva had sucked up the river Ganga when it first fell from heaven. Then Rit means sovereignty or lordship. Riddah is one that gives sovereignty. Combining the two, the compound Kaparddin is formed.
Nabhah means space which implies puissance. That Nabhah is the sthala or abode of Mahadeva. The Bengal texts which read Nabhastala are vicious.
The deities are said to move about during the day, while the Asuras and Rakshasas during the night. What is said, therefore, here is that thou art the deities and thou art their foes of the Daityas and others.
Sound, only when manifested, becomes perceptible. When unmanifest and lying in the womb of eternal space, it is believed to have an existence. Unmanifest Brahman is frequently represented as anahatah savdah or unstruck sound.
These four ways are as enumerated by commentator, Visva, Taijasa, Prajna, Sivadhyana.
It may also mean that thou art he called Buddha who preached against all sacrifices.
The commentator explains that Mahadeva's defeat at the hands of Krishna in the city of Vana was due to Mahadeva's kindness for Krishna, even as Krishna broke his own vow of never taking up arms in the battle of Kurukshetra, for honouring his worshipper Bhishma who had vowed that he would compel Krishna to take up arms.
The sense is this: when the universal destruction comes and all becomes a mighty expanse of water, there appears a banian tree under whose shade the immortal Rishi Markandeya sees a boy who is Mahavishnu.
It may also mean that thou art he at whose approach all the Daitya troops fled in all directions.
i.e., thou art Time itself. This is the implication.
By these three names what is indicated is that Mahadeva is a householder, a Sanyasin and a forest-recluse. House-holders bear a tuft of hair on their heads, Sanyasins have bald heads, while forest recluses or Vanaprasthis have matted locks.
The sense is that Brahman is felt by every one in the firmament of his own heart. Mahadeva, as identical with Brahman is displayed in the heart that is within the physical case. Hence, he may be said to take birth or appear in his effulgence within every one's body.
Kalakatankatah is explained by the commentator as follows:--Kala is Yama. He is covered over with the illusion of the Supreme Deity. This all covering illusion, again, has the Supreme Deity for its cover. Thou art that Supreme Deity.
Vibhaga and Sarvaga, the commentator explains, are used for indicating that thou art the universe as Vyashti and Samashti.
Some editions read susaranab, meaning thou art he who well protects the universe.
The golden mail being the illusion of the Supreme Deity in consequence of which the universe has become displayed.
Thou art Pasupati; atodyah pratodanarhah pasavah yasya iti.
The commentator explains that Tarangavit, which is literally conversant with waves means one that is acquainted with the joys or pleasures that arise from the possession or enjoyment of worldly things, for such joys may truly be likened to waves which appear and disappear on the bosom of the sea or ocean of Eternity.
The commentator explains that the binder of Asura chiefs refers to the Supreme Deity's form of Vishnu in which he had bound Vali, the chief of the Asuras. The plural form has reference to successive Kalpas.
The sense is that thou art he that is well conversant with the ritual of sacrifices.
Or, it may mean that thou art he that has no vestments, for no vestments can cover thy vast limbs.
Those that uphold others are, for example, the elephants that stand at the different points of the compass, the snake Sesha, etc. What is said here is that thou art the best of all these or all such beings.
The sense is that thou art Vishnu who is the foremost of the celestials and thou art Agni who is the lowest of the celestials; i.e., thou art all the celestials.
The body is as it were a pit into which the soul falls, determined by Desire and Ignorance.
Vasu, the commentator explains, indicates the Wind, for it means that which establishes all things into itself.
Nisachara is one acting through nisa, or Avidya, i.e., one who enjoys all objects, implying Jiva invested with Ignorance.
The Soul can view the Soul or itself, if it can transcend the body with the aid of Yoga.
The commentator explains that the first word means that thou art Hansa and that the second word means thou art Paramahansa.
Varhaspatya is a word that is applied to a priest. The deities first got their priest for assisting them at their sacrifices. Human beings then got theirs. Those born after Vrihaspati are Vrihaspatyas.
This word Nandivardhanah may also mean he that withdraws or takes away the joys previously conferred.
The language of the Veda is divine. That of the scriptures is human.
Literally, crown of the head.
i.e., that succeeds in effecting his Emancipation.
Mahanakha refers to the incarnation of Narasingha or the Man-lion assumed for slaying the Daitya Hiranyakasipu, the father of Prahlada. Maharoman has reference to the form of the mighty or vast Boar that the Supreme Deity assumed for raising the submerged Earth on his tusks.
Mahamuni may mean either one that is very mananasilah or one that is exceedingly taciturn.
How the world has been likened to a tree has been explained in the Moksha sections of the Santi Parvan.
This is explained in the sense of no one being able to enquire after Brahman unless he has a body, however subtile, with the necessary senses and understanding. It may also mean that the tree of the world furnishes evidence of the existence of the Supreme Deity.
Both the vernacular translators have rendered many of these names most carelessly. The Burdwan translator takes Yaju as one name and Padabhuja as another. This is very absurd.
These are the ten previously enumerated, beginning with residence in the mother's womb and ending with death as the tenth, with heaven the eleventh and Emancipation the twelfth.
It should be remembered that Kali which is either the age of sinfulness or the presiding deity of that age and, therefore, a malevolent one, is highly propitious to Emancipation. The world being generally sinful, those who succeed in living righteously in this age or under the sway of this malevolent deity, very quickly attain to heaven if heaven be their object, or Emancipation if they strive for Emancipation.
Implying that thou assumest the form of the constellation called the Great Bear, and moving onward in space causest the lapse of Time. This constellation, in Hindu astronomy, is known by the name of Sisumara because of its resemblance with the form of a tortoise.
The word bhashma, meaning ashes, literally signifies anything that dispels, tears off all bonds, and cures every disease. Ashes are used by Sanyasins for rubbing their bodies as a mark of their having consumed every sin and cut off every bond and freed themselves from all diseases.
Mahadeva gave a quantity of ashes to his devotees for protecting them from sin.
Vide the story of Mankanaka. The Rishi of that name, beholding vegetable juice issuing from his body, began to dance in joy. The whole universe, overpowered by a sympathetic influence, began to dance with him. At this, for protecting the universe, Mahadeva showed himself to Mankanaka and, pressing his fingers, brought out a quantity of ashes, thus showing that his body was made of ashes.
Anukari literally means an accessory. In the form of Vishnu or Krishna, the Supreme Deity addrest himself to aid Arjuna in slaying Bhishma.
As Krishna the friend of Arjuna.
In the Pauranik myth, the Earth is described as being supported in empty space by a mighty snake called Sesha. Mahadeva is that Sesha, otherwise called Ananta.
i.e., Mahavishnu, from whose navel arose the primeval lotus within which was born Brahma.
The Bombay text has a misprint. It reads Punya-chanchu for Punya-chunchu. In printing the commentary also, the well-known grammatical Sutra vrittanschanchu etc. The Burdwan translator repeats the misprint in his rendering. K. P. Singha avoids it.
The word Kurukshetra or its abbreviation Kuru means the field or department of action. It means also the actual field, so called, on which king Kuru performed his penances, and which is so sacred that its very dust cleanses a person of all sins.
The commentator explains that Siddharthah means Siddhantah, and that the following compound is its adjective.
Literally, the Soul of real existence.
People eat off plates of silver or gold or of other metals. Mahadeva has for his plate Kala or destroyer of the universe. Both the vernacular translators have erred in rendering this word. K. P. Singha takes the compound as really consisting of two names, etc.
The sense is that Mahadeva is the foremost of Sadhakas or worshippers engaged in acquiring a particular object, for he has emaciated or reduced to nothingness all his foes in the form of all passions good and evil. Prakarshena tanukritah arayah kamadayo yena sah.
Narah is thus explained by the commentator.
The commentator explains that he who is called Suparvan in heaven is otherwise called Mahan.
Sarva-sahana-samarthya pradah as the commentator explains. Hence, it means that Mahadeva is he who makes creatures competent to bear all things, i.e. all griefs and all joys, as also the influence all physical objects that is quietly borne without life being destroyed.
The etymology of Hara is thus explained by the commentator; Hanti iti ha sulah; tam rati or adatte. This is very fanciful.
The sense is this: a nipana is a shallow pond or ditch where cattle drink. The very oceans are the nipanas or Mahadeva.
The commentator thinks that this has reference to the incarnation of Trivikrama i.e., the dwarf suddenly expanding his form till with two steps he covered Heaven and Earth and demanded space for his third step.
i.e., thou art possessed of Yoga knowledge.
The two together form one name.
These are Vija, Sakti, and Kilakani. A kakud is a hump or elevated place in the body.
The thin bamboo rod in the hand of the Brahmana is mightier than the thunderbolt of Indra. The thunder scorches all existing objects upon which it falls. The Brahmana's rod (which symbolizes the Brahmana's might in the form of his curse) blasts even unborn generations. The might of the rod is derived from Mahadeva.
Sayambhuvah Tigmatejah is one name. The commentator explains that Brahman could not look at Mahadeva; hence this reference to his prowess.
Brahma, after his birth within the primeval lotus, became desirous of seeing the end of the stalk of that lotus. He went on and on, without succeeding to find what he sought. The meaning of the word, therefore, by implication is that Mahadeva is infinite.
Once Brahma asked Surabhi to bear evidence before Vishnu to the statement that Brahma has seen the foremost part of Siva. Surabhi having given false evidence out of fear for Brahma was cursed by Siva that her offspring will eat unholy substances.
Uma is another name for Brahmavidya.
Falling from the celestial regions, the river Ganga was held by Mahadeva on his head, among his matted locks. At the earnest solicitations of King Bhagiratha he gave her out so that flowing along the surface of the Earth she met the ocean, first passing over the spot where the ashes of Bhagiratha's ancestors, the sixty thousand sons of king Sagara of the solar race, lay.
This form is called Hara-Gauri, as explained before.
Some texts read Pritatma, implying one of contented soul. The reading noticed by the commentator is Pitatma, meaning gold-complexioned. The Burdwan translator takes Pritatma as one name. This is not correct.
Mahadeva is represented as possessed of five heads, four on four sides and one above.
Amritogovrisherwarah is one name.
These are names for different portions of time.
The Srutis declare that Fire is his head, the Sun and the Moon are his eyes, etc.
Mahadeva has an image in the country of the Kalingas that is called Vyaghreswara.
Kantah is thus explained. Kasya Sukhasya antah sima.
Undivided, i.e., having nothing else for its object, Sarva-bhavatah is bhagvat. The sense is that unless one becomes conversant with all the modes of worshipping Bhava, i.e., in thought, word and deed, and unless one has special good luck, one cannot have such devotion to Bhava.
There are numerous instances of the gods having become alarmed at the penances of men and done their best to nullify those penances by despatching celestial nymphs for attracting them of carnal pleasures.
I expand this verse a little for bringing out the sense clearly.
The subject propounded by Yudhishthira is this: marriage is always spoken of as a union of the sexes for practising all religious duties together. The king asks, how can this be. Marriage, as seems to him, is a union sought for pleasure. If it be said that the two individuals married together are married for practising religious duties jointly, such practice is suspended by death. Persons act differently and attain to different ends. There is, therefore, no prospect of a reunion after death. When, again, one of them dies, the joint practice of duties can no longer take place. The other objections, urged by Yudhishthira, to the theory of marriage being a union of the sexes for only practising religious duties jointly, are plain.
The sense is that if after returning from thy journey to that region thou claimest thy bride, thou mayst obtain her from me. Thy journey will be a sort of trial or test to which I mean to put thee.
Kala-ratri is the Night that precedes the universal dissolution.
The commentator thinks that uttaram means the sacred north.
Tirtha means here a Ghat, i.e., an easy descent from the bank for access to the water.
Pradhanatah is explained by the commentator to mean with foremost of Vedic mantras.
Mandakini is that part of the river Ganga which flows through Kailasa, while Nalini is a celebrated lake owned by the king of the Yakshas, so called because of the lotuses which occur there in plenty.
Divya is excellent Gandharva, meaning music and dance.
A woman is said to destroy a family by staining it with her unchastity.
Both the vernacular translators have totally misunderstood the second line. Asyatam is explained by the commentator as tushnim sthiyatam. Ruchitahchcchandah means chcchandah or yearning arises from ruchi or like. What the Rishi says is, 'As yet I do not yearn after thy company, for I do not like thee. Of course, if, after staying with thee for some time, I begin to like thee, I may then feel a yearning for thee!'
Utsaditah is explained by the commentator to mean chalitah. Here, however, I think it does not mean so.
The last words may also mean--'Go to thy own bed and rest by thyself!'
The commentator takes the words kimivottaram bhavet to imply what will be better for me? Shall I adhere to Vadanya's daughter or shall I take this girl? I think this is rather far-fetched.
By Sakti is implied kamadidamanasamarthyam and by dhriti purvapraptasya atyagah. The last half of the last line of verse 25 is rendered erroneously by both the vernacular translators. Adhering to the commentator's explanation, they add their own interpretation which is different. This sort of jumble is very peculiar.
Linga means signs or indications. A Lingin is one that bears signs and indications. Brahmanam (in both places) means one conversant with Brahman. The first, that is, Lingin implies either a Brahmacharin or a Sanyasin that always bears the marks of his order. An Alingin is one that is divested of such marks. Yudhishthira's question is, who, amongst these, should be considered worthy of gifts?
The sense is that with respect to acts having reference to only the Pitris the conduct and competence of Brahmanas should be examined.
The commentator explains that five persons are mentioned in the question of Yudhishthira, K. P. Singha omits one. The Burdwan translator repeats the words of the original without any explanation. I take sambandhi to mean relatives by marriage. To this day, in all India, people make gifts or presents unto sons-in-law, etc.
The sense is that no sin can touch a Brahmana who observes these three acts. These three acts are efficacious in washing away all sins. The commentator points out that by this the attributes of birth and knowledge are referred to.
By good conduct is implied modesty and candour.
Anekantam is explained by the commentator as Anekaphalakaram, i.e., of diverse kinds of fruits. The fruits attainable by a correct discharge of duties are of diverse kinds, because the objects of those duties, called Palms are of various kinds.
Verse 22 contains 4 substantives in the genitive plural. All those are connected with vishtham in the previous verse. The commentator points out this clearly. Those living in the outskirts of towns and villages are tanners and other low castes. They who publish the acts and omissions of others are regarded as very vile persons, equivalent to such low caste men mentioned above. It is difficult to differ from the commentator, but it seems that genitives in the verse as are used for datives, in which case the meaning would be that they who give unto such persons shall also sink into hell. The Burdwan translator gives a ridiculous version of verse 22.
The Bengal reading Brahmacharyya is better than the Bombay reading of that word in the accusative. Bhishma apparently gives two answers. These however involve three. By maryyada is meant boundaries or limits. The duties of men have known bounds. To transgress those bounds would be to transgress duty. The highest indication of Righteousness is samah or absence of desire for all worldly objects; hence Renunciation.
i.e., by making gifts unto even a single such Brahmana, one rescues all the ancestors and descendants of one's race.
One makes gifts unto the deities, the Pitris, and unto human beings. There is a time for each kind of gift. If made untimely, the gift, instead of producing any merit, becomes entirely futile, if not sinful. Untimely gifts are appropriated by Rakshasas. Even food that is taken untimely, does not strengthen the body but goes to nourish the Rakshasas and other evil beings.
i.e., any food, a portion of which has been eaten by any of these persons, is unworthy of being given away. If given, it is appropriated by Rakshasas. One incompetent to utter Om is, of course, a Sudra.
The speaker, by first mentioning who are unworthy, means to point out those that are worthy.
Apasmara is a peculiar kind of epilepsy in which the victim always thinks that he is pursued by some monster who is before his eyes. When epilepsy is accompanied by some delusion of the sensorium, it comes to be called by Hindu physicians as Apasmara.
An Agrani or Agradani is that Brahmana unto whom the food and other offerings to the Preta in the first Sraddha are given away. Such a person is regarded as fallen.
When corpses are taken to crematoria, certain rites have to be performed upon them before they can be consumed. Those Brahmanas that assist at the performance of those rites are regarded as fallen.
Sometimes the father of a daughter bestows her upon a bridegroom under the contract that the son born of that daughter by her husband should be the son of the daughter's father. Such a son, who is dissociated from the race of his own father, is called a Putrika-putra.
Anugraham is that merit in consequence of which faults become neutralised and the stained person may come to be regarded as deserving.
As Drona, Aswatthaman, Kripa, Rama and others.
Uditastamita means one who having earned wealth spends it all in gifts. Astamitodita is one who though poor at first succeed in earning wealth afterwards; i.e., one who having become rich, keeps that wealth for spending it on good purposes.
Upon the completion of a Sraddha, the Brahmana who is officiating at it should utter the words yukta which means well-applied. Certain other words such as Swadha, etc., have to be uttered. The meaning is that the Brahmana who assists the performer of the Sraddha by reciting the Mantras should, upon completion, say unto the performer that the Sraddha is well-performed. As the custom is, these words are still uttered by every Brahmana officiating at Sraddhas.
K. P. Singha wrongly renders the word somakshayah as equivalent to somarasah.
Upon the conclusion of a Sraddha or other rites, the Brahmana who officiates at it, addresses certain other Brahmanas that are invited on the occasion and says,--Do you say Punyaham--The Brahmana addressed say,--Om, let it be Punyaham!--By Punyaham is meant sacred day.
The fact is, the slaughter of animals in a sacrifice leads to no sin but if slaughtered for nothing (i.e., for purposes of food only), such slaughter leads to sin.
One is said to become impure when a birth or a death occurs among one's cognates of near degree. The period of impurity varies from one day to ten days in case of Brahmanas. Other periods have been prescribed for the other orders. During the period of impurity one cannot perform one's daily acts of worship, etc.
In this country, to this day, there are many persons that go about begging, stating that they desire to go to Banaras or other places of the kind. Sometimes alms are sought on the ground of enabling the seeker to invest his son with the sacred thread or perform his father's Sraddha, etc. The Rishi declares such practices to be sinful.
Literally that are afraid of thieves and others. The sense, of course, is that have suffered at the hands of thieves and others and are still trembling with fear.
The two exceptions have been much animadverted upon by unthinking persons. I have shown that according to the code of morality, that is in vogue among people whose Christianity and civilisation are unquestionable, a lie may sometimes be honourable. However casuists may argue, the world is agreed that a lie for saving life and even property under certain circumstances, and for screening the honour of a confiding woman, is not inexcusable. The goldsmith's son who died with a lie on his lips for saving the Prince Chevalier did a meritorious act. The owner also who hides his property from robbers, cannot be regarded as acting dishonourably.
By selling the Vedas is meant the charging of fees for teaching them. As regards the Vedas, the injunction in the scriptures is to commit them to memory and impart them from mouth to mouth. Hence to reduce them into writing was regarded as a transgression.
In this country to this day, the act of marrying a helpless person with a good girl by paying all the expenses of the marriage, is regarded as an act of righteousness. Of course, the man that is so married is also given sufficient property for enabling him to maintain himself and his wife.
Articles needed in marriages are, of course, girls and ornaments.
Vapra has various meanings. I think, it means here a field. Large waste lands often require to be enclosed with ditches and causeways. Unless so reclaimed, they cannot be fit for cultivation.
The river Chenab in the Punjab was known in former times by the name of Chandrabhaga. So the river Jhelum was known by the name of Vitasta.
The sense is that one proceeds to the region of the Apsaras and becomes an object of respect there.
i.e., one acquires sovereignty.
It is difficult to understand the connection of the second line of verse 31. It does not mean enters the eternal region called Andhaka that rests on nothing. Human sacrifices were performed sometimes in former days.
Nyastani has Gangayam understood after it.
The deities are supported by the offerings made in sacrifices. These offerings consist of the productions of the Earth and the butter produced by the cow. The deities, therefore, are said to be chiefly supported by the Earth and the Cow. The Asuras, by afflicting the Earth and killing kine, used to weaken the deities.
The river Ganga has three courses. On Earth it is called Bhagirathi or Ganga; in heaven it is called Mandakini; and in the nether regions it is known by the name of Bhogabati.
Devesh is lit. the lord of the deities; but here it means the King or Emperor.
Aranyaih is explained by the commentator as implying courses of conduct leading to Brahmaloka.
The story referred to is this: King Sagara of the solar (?) race had sixty thousand sons, all of whom were reduced to ashes by the curse of Kapila. Afterwards Bhagiratha, a prince of the same race, brought down Ganga from heaven for their redemption.
Identical with the universe because capable of conferring the fruition of every wish. Vrihati--literally, large or vast, is explained by the commentator as implying foremost or superior.
Madhumatim is explained as conferring the fruits of all good actions.
Viswam avanti iti. Here the absence of num is arsha.
Bhuvanasya is swargasya.
The construction of this verse is not difficult though the order of the words is a little involved. Both the vernacular translators have misunderstood it completely.
Kurute may mean also makes. The sense is that the Brahmana grants to others whatever objects are desired by them. In his own case also, he creates those objects that he himself desires. His puissance is great and it is through his kindness that others get what they wish or seek.
Ekaramah is one who sports with one's own self, i.e., who is not dependant on others for his joy or happiness; one who has understood the soul.
Dasatirdasa is ten times hundred or one thousand Dasati, like Saptati, Navati, etc., means ten times ten. Both the Vernacular translators have erred in rendering the word.
Teshu (Brahmaneshu) Vahumanaprah (san) kan namsvasi--this is the Grammar, as explained by the commentator.
Yajanti with reference to truth and righteousness means worship, and with reference to land kine means give away.
Pigeons pick up scattered grains and never store for the morrow. In the Sila and other vows, the picking up of scattered and cast off grains from the field after the crops have been taken away by the owners, is recommended as the means of filling the stomach.
The aggregate of three is Righteousness, Wealth, and Pleasure. Persons who, in all the acts they do, keep an eye upon these three, are said to have their aggregate of three existing in all their acts.
Some texts read vriddhan for Ishtan. If the former reading be adopted, the meaning would be that kings should worship all aged Brahmanas possessed of Vedic lore.
Though really conversant with all duties, and of righteous behaviour, the Brahmanas, nevertheless, for concealing their real natures or for protecting the world, are seen to be employed in diverse kinds of occupations.
The argument, therefore, is that anything given to the Brahmana to eat and that is eaten by him apparently, is really eaten by these deities.
Bhutatmanah is explained by the commentator as Bhuta praptahvasikritahatma yaih.
The second line of verse 18 is a crux. The commentator explains that prakshipya means dattwa; Kun is the Earth. Van is diptim ukrvan, ubhaya-loke iti seshah. Para- [This footnote appears to have been truncated, as the last line begins with a hyphenated word.--JBH.]
The dark spots on the Moon were due to the curse of Daksha. The waters of the Ocean became saltish owing to the curse of a Rishi.
The sense is that one becomes a Brahmana by birth alone, without the aid of those purificatory rites that have been laid down in the scriptures. When food is cooked, none else than a Brahmana is entitled in the first portion thereof.
The commentator thinks that saudram karma has especial reference to the service of others. Hence what is interdicted for the Brahmanas is the service of others.
In this country to this day, when food is prepared in view of guests invited to a house, no portion of such food can be offered to any one before it is dedicated to the deities and placed before those for whom it is intended. An exception, however, is made for children. What is stated here is that a good Brahmana can take the precedence of even children in the matter of such food.
What is stated here is that those Brahmanas that do not accept gifts are very superior. Their energy and might are great. Bhishma directs Yudhishthira to be always careful of how he would treat such superior Brahmanas. After rakshyam, the words swakulam are understood. The Burdwan translator misunderstands the second line of the verse.
The construction is Etat Brahmana-mukhat sastram, yat srutwaiha pravartate, prithivyam etc, etc. Both the vernacular translators have misunderstood the verse.
Etat karanam seems to refer to Brahmana-mukhat sastram. The sense seems to be that in the encounter between the deities and the Asuras the power of the Brahmanas was abundantly proved, for Sukra aided the Asuras with his Mantras and incantations, while Vrihaspati and others aided the deities by the same means.
In some of the Bengal texts for Bhumiretau the reading Bhumireto occurs. The fact is, the latter is a misprint or a mere clerical error. The etau has reference to the two mentioned in the second line. The Burdwan translator actually takes Bhumireto as a correct reading and makes nonsense of the verse.
I expand this verse. After kriya bhavati patratwam is understood. Kriya includes the diverse objects for which persons solicit alms or gifts. Upansuvratam is maunam parivrajyam.
It is said that food or other things, when given to an undeserving person, feels grief. What Yudhishthira asks is who the proper person is unto whom gifts may be made.
All these acts should be performed with purity of intention and according to the ordinances of the scriptures. For example, sacrifices should not be performed with vanity or pride. The Vedas should not be studied without faith. Children should not be procreated from lust, etc.
Such words are unseizable and unintelligible for their depth of meaning. Women are equally unseizable and unintelligible.
The sense is this: women agitate the hearts of those that treat them with respect as of those that treat them with disdain. The commentator explains that Pujitah dhikkritahva tulyavat vikaram janayati.
All living creatures are virtuous, for they are capable of progressing towards godship by their own acts.
Pura has little force here, implying 'first'. In the first place, know that I have come to thee,
Ladies spoke in Prakrita and not in Sanskrit. The latter is refined, the former is unrefined. Hence Indra's surprise at hearing Sanskrit words from the lady's lips.
The adana ceremony was a rite in course of which friends and kinsmen had to make presents unto the person performing the ceremony. The investiture with the sacred-thread, marriage, the rite performed in the sixth and the ninth month of pregnancy, are all ceremonies of this kind.
It would be curious to see how the commentator Nilakantha seeks to include within these five the eight forms of marriage mentioned by Manu. The fact is, such parts of the Mahabharata are unquestionably more ancient than Manu. The mention of Manu is either an instance of interpolation or there must have been an older Manu upon whose work the Manu we know has been based. The Asura and the Rakshasa forms are unequivocally condemned. Yet the commentator seeks to make out that the Rakshasa form is open to the Kshatriyas. The fact is, the Rakshasa was sometimes called the Paisacha. The distinction between those two forms was certainly of later origin.
Thus, there was no difference, in status, in ancient times, between children born of a Brahmana, a Kshatriya or a Vaisya mother. The difference of status was of later origin.
Nagnika is said to be one who wears a single piece of cloth. A girl in whom the signs of puberty have not appeared does not require more than a single piece of cloth to cover her. The mention of Nagnika, the commentator thinks, is due to an interdiction about wedding a girl of even ten years in whom signs of puberty have appeared.
When a father happens to have an only daughter, he frequently bestows her in marriage upon some eligible youth on the understanding that the son born of her shall be the son, for purposes of both Sraddha rites and inheritance, not of the husband begetting him but of the girl's father. Such a contract would be valid whether expressed or not at the time of marriage. The mere wish of the girl's father, unexpressed at the time of marriage, would convert the son into a son not of the father who begets him but of the father of the girl herself. A daughter reserved for such a purpose is said to be a putrikadharmini or 'invested with the character of a son.' To wed such a girl was not honourable. It was in effect an abandonment of the fruits of marriage. Even if dead at the time of marriage, still if the father had, while living, cherished such a wish, that would convert the girl into a putrikadharmini. The repugnance to wedding girls without father and brothers exists to this day.
For understanding the meanings of Sapinda and Sagotra see any work on Hindu law civil or canonical.
These verses are exceedingly terse. The commentator explains that what is intended is that under the third and fourth circumstances the giver of the girl incurs no sin; under the second, the bestower of the girl (upon a person other than he unto whom a promise had been made) incurs fault. The status of wife, however, cannot attach simply in consequence of the promise to bestow upon the promiser of the dower. The relationship of husband and wife arises from actual wedding. For all that, when the kinsmen meet and say, with due rites, 'This girl is this one's wife,' the marriage becomes complete. Only the giver incurs sin by not giving her to the promised person.
Hence, having promised to wed such a one, she is at liberty to give him over and wed another whom she likes.
In consequence of that boon no one incurs sin by retracting promises of bestowing daughters upon others in view of more eligible husbands.
Hence, no one should bestow his daughter upon a person that is not eligible, for the offspring of such marriage can never be good and such a marriage can never make the daughter's sire or kinsmen happy.
One of the most important rites of marriage is the ceremony of circumambulation. The girl is now borne around the bride-groom by her kinsmen. Formerly, she used to walk herself. All gifts, again, are made with water. The fact is, when a thing is given away, the giver, uttering the formula, sprinkles a drop of water upon it with a blade of Kusa grass.
Hence, what Savitri did at the bidding of her sire could not be against the course of duty or morality. The Burdwan translator has misunderstood the second line of this verse, while K.P. Singha has quietly dropped it.
Dharmasya refers to the true or correct or eternal Aryan usage, Pradanam is khandanam, from da, to cut. The sense is that the grant of liberty to women is an Asura practice.
Hence, no one should wed, led by desire alone. Nor should the maiden be permitted to choose for herself. She may be guided in her choice by improper considerations connected with only carnal pleasure.
The property is divided into five parts, two of which are taken by the daughter under such circumstances and three by the son.
I expand the verse for making it intelligible, by setting forth the reasons urged by Hindu lawyers and noticed by the commentator.
Valatah vasyam implies only those whose consent is obtained by force. Hence, such cases as those of Krishna abducting Rukmini and Arjuna abducting Subhadra, are excluded from this denunciation.
The maiden may herself accept ornaments. That would not convert the transaction into a sale.
Swalpa-kaupinah literally is covered with a small piece of cloth, hence, capable of being easily seduced.
i.e., he should not acquire for storing. He may acquire to spend in sacrifices and gifts or for maintaining himself and his family.
i.e., if the Brahmana, led by affection for any other wife, disregards the wife belonging to his own order and shows preference for those of the other orders, he then incurs the liability of being regarded as a Chandala that has come to be numbered among Brahmanas.
The sense of this verse seems to be this: If a Brahmana takes in succession three spouses all belonging to his own order, the son born of his first wife shall take the share that is allotted to the eldest; that born of the second wife shall take a share next in value; and that born of the youngest wife shall take the share allotted to the youngest. After such especial shares are taken, the residue of the property is to be distributed unto equal shares each of which shall be taken by each of the children. If this interpretation be correct, it would appear that the contention waged some years ago in Bengal, that the scriptures do not allow a person the liberty of taking more than one spouse from his own order, falls to the ground. Upon other grounds also, that contention was absurd, for Kshatriya kings often took more than one Kshatriya spouse.
i.e., each order was created for performing sacrifices. The Sudra is competent to perform sacrifice. Only his sacrifice should be by serving the three other orders.
For them there is no investiture with the sacred-thread.
Broken earthenpots are always cast off. They are some times utilised by persons of the lower orders.
The second line is exceedingly terse. The sense seems to be this: one who is of low birth must remain low in disposition. Absolute goodness may arise in his heart, but it disappears immediately without producing any effect whatsoever. The study of the scriptures, therefore, cannot raise such a person. On the other hand, the goodness which according to its measure has ordained for one (1) the status of humanity and (2) the rank in that status, is seen to manifest itself in his act.
The son begotten upon a maiden by one who does not become her husband, and born after her marriage, is regarded as belonging not to the begetter but to the husband.
Such a son becomes the property of the mother's husband and not of his begetter. If however, the begetter expresses a wish to have him and rear him, he should be regarded as the begetter's. The principle upon which he becomes the child of the mother's husband is that the begetter conceals himself and never wishes to have him.
The objects of Yudhishthira's question will appear clearly from the answer given to it by Bhishma.
There is no fault in kine, etc., and kine are like fire etc. The Hindu idea is that kine are cleansing or sanctifying. The Rishis discovered that the magnetism of the cow is something that is possessed of extraordinary virtues. Give the same kind of food to a cow and a horse. The horse-dung emits an unhealthy stench, while the cowdung is an efficacious disinfectant. Western science has not yet turned its attention to the subject, but there can be little doubt that the urine and dung of the cow possess untold virtues.
Saptopadam mitram means that by speaking only seven words or walking only seven steps together, two persons, if they be good, become friends.
Vajrasuchyagram may also mean furnished with an end like that of the needle with which diamonds and other hard gems are bored through.
The ever-changing beautiful masses of afternoon or evening clouds, presenting diverse kinds of forms almost every minute, are regarded as the abodes or mansions of the Gandharvas.
Some of these trees and creepers are identifiable. Sahakara is Mangifera Indica, Linn. Ketaka is a variety of Pandanus Odoratissimus, Linn. Uddalaka is otherwise called Vahuvara and sometimes Selu. It is the Cordia Myxa, Linn. It may be a misreading for Uddanaka, which is the well-known Cirisha or the Mimosa Sirisca of Roxburgh. Dhava is Conocarpus latifolia, Roxb. Asoka is Saraca Indica, Linn., syn, Jonesia Asoka, Roxb. Kunda is Jasminum pubescens, Linn. Atimukta is otherwise called Madhavi. It is Gaertinera racemosa, Roxb. Champaka is Michelia Champaca, Linn. Tilaka sometimes stands for Lodhra, i.e., Symplocos racemosa, Roxb. The word is sometimes used for the Aswattha or Ficus religiosa, Linn. Bhavya is Dillenia Indica, Linn. Panasa is Artocarpus integrifolia, Linn. The Indian Jack-tree. Vyanjula stands for the Asoka, also Vetasa (Indian cane), and also for Vakula, i.e., Mimusops Elengi, Linn. Karnikara is Pterospermum accrifolium, Linn. Cyama is sometimes used for the Pilu, i.e., Salvadora Persica, Linn. Varanapushpa or Nagapushpa or Punnaga is Colophyllum inophyllum, Linn. Astapadika or padika is otherwise called Bhardravalli. It is the Vallaris dichotoma, Wall., Syn., Echites dichotoma, Roxb.
Bhringaraja is the Lanius Malabaricus. Kokila is the well-known Indian Koel or cuckoo. Catapatra is the wood-pecker. Koyashtika is the Lapwing. Kukkubhas are wild-cocks (Phasinus gallus). Datyuhas are a variety of Chatakas or Gallinules. Their cry resembles the words (phatikjal). Jivajivaka is a species of partridges. Chakora is the Greek partridge. Sarasa is the Indian crane. Chakravaka is the Brahmini duck or goose.
In verse 39 and 40 for asmi and tapacchaitat read asi and tapasaccha.
The Grandsire spoke of somebody becoming a Kshatriya in Bhrigu's race, and referred to the incident as the result of a stain that would be communicated to that race from Kusika's. This is the full allusion.
The sense seems to be that Kusika wishes to know what person of Bhrigu's race will confer this high benefit upon his race.
By ancestors to the seventh degree also descendants to the same degree are meant.
Heaven and Hell are places of only enjoyment and endurance. There can be no acts there leading to merit or demerit. This world is the only place which is called the field of acts.
Vrikshas are large or small trees generally. Gulma is a shrub, or bushy plant. Lata is a creeper, which cannot grow without a support. Talli is of the same variety, with this difference, perhaps, that its stems are more tree-like than those of creepers. Twaksara is the bamboo. Trina includes all kinds of grass.
The commentator explains that the drift of Yudhishthira's query is this: the giver and the receiver do not meet in the next world. How then can an object given away return or find its way back to the giver in the next world or next life?
Abhimanat is differently understood by the commentator.
Yuktaih is the better reading, although muktaih may not be erroneous. Yuktain is charaih; while muktath is 'men charged with a commission to do a thing'.
This sacrifice is the sacrifices of gifts. 'Spreading out a sacrifice' means 'spreading out the articles and placing them in proper order in view of the sacrifice.' 'Dadatah vartotam' means datustaya saryanastu.
The sense is this: gifts made to such superior Brahmanas serve to free a person from the debts which he owes to the deities. The 'water of gifts' means the water that the giver sprinkles, with a blade of Kusa grass, over the article given away, saying, 'I give this away'. In the sacrifice constituted by gifts, such water is like the dedication of offerings to the Pitris. A knowledge of the ritual of sacrifice is needed to understand and appreciate the figures employed in such verses.
Some texts read tathabham, meaning abhayam or fearlessness is from them--Tathobhayam (which I adopt) is that both, Heaven and Hell become one's through them; if gratified, they bestow Heaven; if angry, they hurl into Hell.
Yachyam is yachanarupamkarma, Anisasya is daridrasya. Abhiharam is tirashkaram. Yachanti bhutani means those who beg or solicit. In the Santi Parva, Bhishma in one place directs beggars to be driven away from towns and cities as annoyers of respectable people. This, however, applies to professional beggars, and not persons in real distress.
Antarvedyan is within the platform; and Anrisamsyatah is vahirvedyan or outside the platform.
Sacrifices are a means of giving away unto the Brahmanas.
Weeping women means women of destitute condition and, therefore, unable to pay.
The first word in the first line is not kshatam but kritam.
The Commentator explains that because giver by one that is dear or given to one that is dear, therefore is she called Priyadatta.
This is evidently a crux. Prasamsanti means generally praise. Here it means reproach or censure. The second line may also mean, his enemies dare not attack his kingdom.
This is the utterance or declaration of the earth herself.
Rich with every taste; the idea is that things have six tastes, viz., sweet, sour, etc. The quality of taste is drawn by things from the soil or earth. The tastes inhere in earth, for it is the same earth that produces the sugarcane and the tamarind.
Sparsitam is dattam.
The Bombay reading adityatastansha is better than the Bengal reading adityataptansha.
What Yudhishthira wishes to know is what conjunctions should be utilized for making what particular gifts.
Payasa is rice boiled in sugared milk. It is a sort of liquid food that is regarded as very agreeable.
Vardhamana, Sarava or Saravika. It is a flat certain cup or dish.
Phanita is the inspissated juice of the sugarcane.
A prasanga is a basket of bamboo or other material for covering paddy.
Rajamasha is a kind of bean. It is the Vinga sinensis, syn. Dilicheos sinensis Linn.
There may be akama and sakama acts, i.e., acts without desires of fruit and acts with desires of fruit. A Sraddha with Tila or sesame should never be done without desire for fruit.
When a residential house is given away unto such a Brahmana and the receiver resides in it, the giver reaps the reward indicated. It does not refer to the hospitable shelter to such a Brahmana given by one in one's own house.
To this day, in Bengal at least, a tenant never performs the first Sraddha or a Puja (worship of the deities) without obtaining in the first instance the permission of the landlord. There is in Sraddhas a Rajavarana or royal fee payable to the owner of the earth on which the Sraddha is performed.
Tasyam is explained by the commentator as kritayam.
Kinasa is either one who tills the soil with the aid of bulls or one who slays cattle. Having first mentioned vadhartham, kinasa should here be taken for a tiller. Kasai, meaning butcher, seems to be a corruption of the word kinasa.
One need not dedicate unto one's deities any other food than what one takes oneself. In the Ramayana it has been said that Rama offered unto the Pitris astringent fruits while he was in exile. The Pisachas dedicate carrion unto their deities for they themselves subsist upon carrion.
The first line of 13 and the last line of 14 are very terse: Kalasya vihitam, as explained by the Commentator, is ayuh pramanam, na prapnami is na janami. The sense is that 'unurged by time, I cannot allow these to take up my residence here.'
i.e., invite Brahmanas to feasts in which sesame should predominate.
In Bengal, to this day, those who can afford, particularly pious ladies, establish shady resting places in the month of Vaisakha (the hottest month of the year), by the side of the public roads, for travellers, where good cool drinking water, a handfull of well-drenched oats, and a little of raw sugar, are freely distributed. Such institutions, on the old Benares Road and the Grand Trunk Road, considerably refresh travellers. There are miles upon miles along these roads where good water is not at all procurable.
What is meant by the giving of lamps is the placing of lighted lamps in dark places which are the resorts of men, such as roads and ghats, etc.
Of equal name, because the word go means cow, earth, and speech.
No particular number is intended. What is meant is--innumerable.
The 'hence' in the last line has reference to what has been said before on the subject of kine, and not to the first line of the verse.
Vitasokaih in the instrumental plural refers to Bhavanaih or some such substantive understood. It may also be read as a nominative plural, referring to Lokah.
Very probably what is said here is that only such kine are worthy of being given away unto Brahmanas, and not lean animals.
Kine produce food not only by assisting at tillage of the soil, but also by aiding in the performance of sacrifices. The ghee burnt in the sacrificial fire sustains the under-deities, who pour rain and cause crops to grow.
That heat is the originating principle of the growth of many things was well understood by the Rishis.
The sense seems to be this: in doing all pious acts, one should first take the aid of a preceptor, even if one be well-conversant with the ordinances one has to follow. Without the selection of a preceptor in the first place, there can be no pious act. In the matter, therefore, of making gifts of kine according to the ordinances laid down, one should seek the help of a preceptor as well as in the matter of every other act of piety.
When consciousness of body is lost in Yoga or Samadhi, a temporary Moksha or Emancipation succeeds. Men with cleansed minds behold at such times those regions of supreme felicity to which the speaker refers. Such felicity, of course, is the felicity of Brahma itself.
Govritti is imitating the cow in the matter of providing for the morrow. Hence, one, who never thinks of the morrow and never stores anything for future use, is meant.
Etachcha in 25 implies gift of a cow, and enam refers to a Brahmana. Dwijaya dattwa, etc, in the first line of 26 seems to be an elaboration of Etachcha.
Homyaheth prasute implies for a child born in consequence of a Homa. The fact is, ascetics sometimes created children without the intervention of women and by efficacy of the Homa alone. At such times should people make gifts of kine unto such sires. The mention of Vala-samvriddhaye afterwards implies the birth of children in the usual course.
Kshirapaih implies calves that are yet unweaned; that is, the cow should be given at such a time when she is still yielding milk; when, in fact, her calf has not learnt to eat or drink anything besides the milk or its dam.
The correct reading of the second line is kshanene vipramuchya as in the Bombay text, and not kshemena vipramuchyeran. The latter reading yields almost no sense. The Burdwan translator, who has committed grave blunders throughout the Anusasana, adheres to the incorrect reading, and makes nonsense of the verse.
In verse 3, vikrayartham is followed, as the Commentator rightly explains, by niyunkta or some such word. Vikrayartham hinsyat may mean 'killing for sale.' This, however should be pleonastic with reference to what follows.
Vratas (rendered as 'vows') and Niyamas (rendered as observances) differs in this respect that the former involves positive acts of worship along with the observance of, or abstention from, particular practices, while the latter involves only such observance or abstention.
The orthodox belief is that all rituals are literally eternal. As eternal, they existed before anybody declared them or set them down in holy writ. The ritual in respect of gifts of kine sprang in this way, i.e., in primeval time. It was only subsequently declared or set down in holy writ.
In verse 5, if instead of the reading swah, swa be adopted, the meaning would be knowing that he would have to die. A Rohini is a red cow. The words Samanga and Vahula are Vedic terms applied to the cow. The Sandh in vahuleti is arsha. The formula or Mantras that should be uttered in actually giving away the kine occur in the scriptures.
The Commentator explains that gavadinam in the first line refers to gopratindhinam. The second line is very terse. The sense is that at only the eight step in the homeward journey of the recipient, all the merits attaching to vicarious gift become his who gives an actual cow: what need, therefore, be said of that merit when the recipient reaches home and draws from the cow the means of worshipping his domestic fire, entertaining his guests, etc?
Ashtami is the eighth day of the lunar fortnight. There must be two Ashtamis in every lunar month. A particular Ashtami is known as the Kamya or the Goshtha. On that day, kine are worshipped with sandalpaste, vermilion, floral wreaths, etc.
Sikhi means a bull, so called from the hump it carries. The construction is sikhi Vrishaiva etc,
A Kapila cow is one that gives a copious measure of milk whenever she is milked, and is possessed of various other accomplishments and virtues.
For without ghee, which is produced from milk, there can be no sacrifice. The sa may refer to Soma, but sacrifice is evidently meant.
The idea of uchcchishta, is peculiarly Hindu and cannot be rendered into any other language. Everything that forms the remnant of meal after one has left of eating, is uchcchishta. The calf sucks its dam. The udders, however, are not washed before milking the dam, for the milk coming out of them is not held to be impure remnant.
Swastayana is a ceremony of propitiation, productive of blessing and destructive of misery of every kind.
The commentator explains that by a wet cowhide is meant a piece of cowhide that has been dipped in water and thus purified. Upavisya is understood after Charmani. The mention of bhumau implies the avoidance of dishes or plates or cups of white brass or other allowable metals. Gavam pushtim, I understand, means 'the prosperity in respect of kine.' i.e., the prosperity which kine confer.
The first line of verse 4 seems to be connected with verse 3. The second line of 4 seems to stand by itself. By connecting the first line of 4 with the second, the meaning will be--All mobile and immobile creatures that will give us away etc. Immobile creatures making gifts of kine would be utter nonsense.
Vallaki is the Indian lute. The Nupura is an ornament for the ankles.
Bhumidah is literally, a giver of land. King Saudasa, the commentator explains, was known by the name of Bhumidah in consequence of his liberality in the matter of giving away land unto the Brahmanas.
These are the several names by which kine are known. The first is probably derived from kine bearing the plough and thus assisting the tillage of the soil. The second implies beauty of form. The third is derived from the cow being regarded as the origin of all things in the universe: all things, therefore, are only so many forms of the cow. Viswarupa implies the same thing. Matara implies mothers, kine being regarded as the mothers of all.
Ghee is regarded so sacred because of its use in sacrifices. It is with the aid of ghee that the deities have become what they are. Itself sacred, it is also cleansing at the same time.
Sri is the goddess of Prosperity. The answer of Bhishma will explain the question fully.
Devendreshu is evidently a misreading for Daitendreshu.
The commentator explains that hence, by making gifts of gold, one comes to be regarded as making gifts of the entire universe.
i.e., into water, for water is identical with Agni.
This refers to the practice of making the sacrificial fire by rubbing two sticks of Sami. It is a very inflammable wood and is used hence in all sacred rites.
Hiranyaretas implies having gold for his vital seed.
Vasumati implies endued with wealth, so called because the seed of Agni, identified with gold, is wealth of the highest kind and fell on the Earth who from that time began to hold it.
Skanda is derived from Skanna or fallen out. Guha implies secret. The secrecy of his birth in the wilderness led to the bestowal of this name. He has many other names.
Jatarupa refers to the incident of its having assumed an excellent form after its birth from Agni.
The commentator explains,--Pravrittipradhanam jangamamabhut.
Sa guna refers to Sattwa. Tejas is identical with Buddhi, because Buddhi, like Light, discovers all things. Sattwa, again, being of the nature of space, or rather being space itself, is of universal form; that is, Sattwa is all-pervading.
Avasatmaka is explained by the commentator as bhranta.
These are different names of Brahman and Mahadeva.
The 'hence' here does not refer to what preceded immediately, but has reference to what has been said of the identity of Agni with Brahman and Rudra.
Pravartakam implies leading to Pravritti for righteous acts or Chittasuddhi.
The commentator explains that the Pitris should be worshipped on the day of the New moon, the deities should then be worshipped on the first day of the lighted fortnight. Or, on any other day of the lighted fortnight, the Pitri-sacrifice or Sraddha should be performed first; the Deva-sacrifice or Ishti should then be performed.
Anwaharyam, the commentator explains, is paschatkartavyam, i.e., subsequently performable (subsequent, i.e., to the worship of the gods). There is a special ordinance, however, which lays down that the Sraddha should be performed on the afternoon of the day of the new moon. The gods should be adored on the first day of the lighted fortnight. Hence, owing to this especial ordinance, the Sraddha must precede the worship of the gods, and not succeed it.
Masha, is the Phascolus Roxburghii.
It is difficult to understand what is meant by Vadhrinasa here. It means either a large bull, or a kind of bird, or a variety of the goat. Probably the bull is intended.
Pitrikshaye is mrita-tithau. Kalasaka is explained by Nilakantha as identical with the common potherb called Shuka or the country sorrel (Rumex visicarius, Linn). Some hold that it is something like the sorrel. Lauham is the petals of the Kanchana flower (Bauhinia acuminata, Linn).
To this day the sanctity of Gaya is universally recognised by all Hindus. Sraddhas are performed there under the banian called the Akshaya or inexhaustible banian.
All religious acts are either nitya or kamya. The former imply acts that are obligatory and by doing which no particular merit is acquired but by not doing which sin is incurred. The latter imply those optional acts which, if done, produce merit but which, if omitted, leads to no sin.
Literally, 'set in motion a body of kings,' i.e., become an Overlord.
When Brahmanas are fed, they are made to sit in long lines. They that are stained with vices are excluded from the line. Such exclusion from the line is regarded as equal to complete outlawry.
i.e., who have undergone a natural circumcision.
Implying soothsayers.
This is a common form of expression to imply the fruitlessness of an act. Libations should be poured on the blazing fire. If poured on the ashes, they lead to no merit, for only Agni in his blazing form can bear them to the intended places.
The idea is that heaven is the result of one's deeds. It is attached to the fruits of one's acts. The man falling off from heaven is identical with heaven being dissociated from the fruits of his acts. Hence such a falling off at the man or the dissociation of heaven is likened to a bird's dissociation from its perch when the chain tying it to the perch is broken. The simile seems to be far-fetched.
It is painful to see how very careless the Vernacular versions of the Anusasana have been. From want of space the numerous errors that have been committed have not been pointed out. At times, however, the errors appear to be so grave that one cannot pass them by in silence. In the second half of the first line, whether the reading be avapta as in the Bengal texts or chavapta as in the Bombay texts, the meaning is that the Avapta or one that has not sown na vijabhagam prapnuyat, i.e., would not get a share of the produce. The Burdwan translators make a mess of it, while K. P. Singha skips over it.
The sense is that the calumniator, his sire, and son meet with destruction in consequence of such an act.
These purificatory rites, after the usual period of mourning, consists in shaving and bathing and wearing new clothes.
The act, as explained by the commentator, consisted in the father's doing that with reference to the son which, as the ordinance went, was done by sons with reference to sires.
In one of the vernacular versions, the wrong reading Kshama is adopted for Akshaya.
Ravana and other Rakshasas who spring from Pulastya's line are known as Brahma-Rakshasas or Rakshasas of regenerate origin.
i.e., that fast which mortifies the body is not to be regarded as equivalent to penance. True penance is something else. An observer of such a fast is not to be regarded as an ascetic. Such fasts, again, are sinful instead of being meritorious.
By Upavasa in the second line is meant abstention from food between the two prescribed hours for eating, and not that fast which mortifies the body. One may, again, eat the most luxurious food without being attached to it. One also, by repining at one's abstinence, may come to be regarded as actually enjoying the most luxurious food.
Meat of animals slaughtered in sacrifices is allowable. By taking such meat, one does not become an eater of meat. In fact, one may etc.
Prashthauhi means a cow pregnant with her second calf. Grishti means a cow that has brought forth only her first calf.
The commentator explains that the direction about ascertaining the names of the Rishis and the meanings of those names proceed from the kings' desire of cautioning the Rakshasi lest in going to destroy them she might herself meet with destruction.
In other words, Vasishtha attributes the leanness or emaciation of himself and his companions to the failure to discharge their daily rites of religious practice.
Lotus-stalks are eaten in India and are mentioned by Charaka as heavy food.
Sunahsakha implies a friend of dogs. The newcomer who had joined the roving Rishis had a dog with him. Hence, he is called by the name of Sunahsakha.
Brahma-danda literally means the stick in the hand of a Brahmana. Figuratively, it implies the chastisement inflicted by a Brahmana in the form of a curse. As such it is more effective than the thunderbolt in the hands of Indra himself, for the thunderbolt blasts only those objects that lie within its immediate range. The Brahmana's curse, however, blasts even those that are unborn.
Libations should always be poured upon a blazing fire. Fire made with dry grass or straw blaze up quickly and become soon extinguished. By pouring libations, therefore, upon such fires, one practically pours them upon ashes and gains no merit.
To derive the means of sustenance from a wife was always viewed with feelings of aversion in this country. It seems, therefore, that the custom of domesticating sons-in-law was not unknown in ancient times. To receive acts of hospitality in return for those rendered was regarded as not only meanness but also destructive of merit.
Jnatinam is an instance of the genitive in what is called Anadara. The meaning, therefore, is disregarded them. For a Brahmana woman to bring forth a son devoted to heroic deeds is a reproach.
The scriptures declare that Righteousness loses its strength as Time advances. In the Krita age, it exists in entirety. In the Treta, it loses a quarter. In the Dwapara, another quarter is lost. In the Kali age, full three quarters are lost and only a quarter is all that remains.
The Rishis think that the distinctions between the lower, the middling, and the higher classes of society are eternal, and nothing can be a greater calamity than the effacement of those distinctions. Equality of men, in their eyes, is an unmitigated evil.
Forgiveness is the duty of the Brahmana. To fall off from forgiveness is to fall off from duty. To censure when censured and assail the assailer, are grave transgressions in the case of a Brahmana. The idea of retaliation should never enter the Brahmana's heart; for the Brahmana is the friend of the universe. His behaviour to friend and foe should be equal. To eat the flesh that attaches itself to the back-bone of a slaughtered animal is also a grave transgression.
A religious mendicant should always wander over the Earth, sleeping where night overtakes him. For such a man to reside in a city or town is sinful.
To till the soil is a transgression for a Brahmana.
Good food should never be taken alone. It should always be shared with children and servants.
A village having only one well should be abandoned by a Brahmana, for he should not draw water from such a well which is used by all classes of the population.
The penance that is involved in standing on one foot should be practised, like all other penances, in the woods. To practise a penance on the way leading to a village so that people may be induced to make gifts, is a transgression of a grave kind.
Some kine that are vicious have their hind legs tied with a rope while they are milked. If the rope be made of human hair, the pain felt is supposed to be very great. To obtain the aid of a calf belonging to another cow is regarded as sinful. To the cow also, the process of sucking cannot be agreeable. If the milk is held in a vessel of white brass, it becomes unfit for gods and guests.
The discourse is called eternal and immutable because of its subject being so. Duties are eternal truths.
This discourse on duties delivered by the Rishis is called a Sastra. Literally, anything that governs men, i.e., regulates their behaviour, is called a Sastra. As such, the enumeration of duties occurring in this Lesson, although it has been made by a reference to their breaches, is therefore, a Sastra.
Literally, they who cook for dogs, i.e., keep dogs as companions; meaning members of the lowest caste.
The commentator takes Tapah or Penance as indicative of the duties of the four orders of life, and Dharma as indicative of compassion and other virtues.
Dhupas are incenses offered to the deities. Being of inflammable substances, they are so made that they may burn slowly or smoulder silently. They are the inseparable accompaniments of a worship of the deities.
Tejas is explained by the commentator, as used here for Kanti or beauty, and prakasam for kirti; there is no necessity, however, for rejecting the ordinary meaning of Tejas which is energy.
The sense seems to be that if a man dies during that period when the sun is in his southward course, he is dragged through a thick darkness. For escaping that darkness, one should give lights at the period mentioned.
What is meant by the juice of deciduous herbs is oil of mustard seeds and castor seeds, etc.
Well-fried paddy, reduced to powder, is sometimes used for giving a coating to dishes of meat.
It will be remembered that the only chastisement that was in vogue in the Krita age was the crying of 'Fie' on an offender.
The Bombay text has vatsakah for utsavah. If the former reading be adopted, it would mean those rites that are performed for the prosperity and longevity of children. Of course, in such rites also the deities are worshipped and propitiated.
For Dwijaya some text read Grahaya meaning guests.
'Jwalante' has 'dwipah' for its nominative understood. A twinkle occupies an instant of time. What is said here is that the giver of lights becomes endued with beauty and strength for as many years as the number of instants for which the lights given by him are seen to burn.
'Kshatrabandhu' implies a low or vile Kshatriya.
Literally, 'Why dost thou dip such parts of thy body into a pond of water?'
The study of the Vedas is regarded as equivalent in merit of gifts. Hence actual gifts of articles are spoken of as 'gifts of other kinds.'
Literally 'friendship is seven-word.' Sometimes the same expression is understood as meaning 'seven-paced,' The sense, of course, is that if the righteous meet and exchange seven words (or, walk with each other for only seven steps), they become friends.
The Bombay text has Somapithi and upavati instead of upayanti. The Bengal text reads Somavithi which seems to be inaccurate. The sense seems to be that of Somapithi or drinker of (sacrificial) soma.
The Ekaratra, Pancharatra, and Ekadasaratra, sacrifices consist of fasts and gifts for the periods indicated by the names, viz., one night, five nights, and eleven nights.
'Golden moons' imply those well-carved and beautifully fringed discs of gold that are worn by Hindu ladies on the forehead and that hang by thin chains of gold attached to the hair. In Bengal, ladies of respectable houses wear a kind of ornament called 'Chandrahara' or the moon-wreath. This ornament is worn round the waist, on the hip. Several chains of gold, from half a dozen to a dozen, having a large disc of well-carved gold to which they are attached, constitute this really very beautiful ornament. The disc is divided into two halves, attached to each other by hinges, so that in sitting down, the ornament produces no inconvenience.
In the Santi Parva it has been explained that in ancient times kings sometimes performed sacrifices causing altars to be raised at small distances from one another. These distances were measured by hurling a heavy piece of wood called Sami, so that throwing the Sami from one altar, the next altar would be created upon the spot where it fell.
i.e. if a sinful man mends his conduct, he succeeds in warding off the misery and evils to which he would otherwise be subject in consequence of his sins.
What is said here is this: certain persons have the ugly habit of picking up little clods of earth and pound them into dust, while sitting on the ground and engaged in talking. The habit also of tearing the grass while sitting on the ground may be marked. It should be remembered that the people of India in ancient times used often to sit on the bare ground. As to cutting off the nails with the teeth, it is an ugly habit with many young men.
The Brahma Muhurta is that when the sun is just below the horizon.
The prayers said in the morning and the evening are also spoken of as adoring the two twilights.
'One should always observe the vow of Brahmacharya' means that one should abstain from sexual congress except with one's wedded wives and in the proper season.
The Bombay text reads the second line differently. What is meant, is that the wounds inflicted by wordy shafts rankle and fester and lead to death.
Samyava is a thin cake of unleavened bread, fried with ghee, pounded and again made up into an oblong form with fresh bread, sugar and spices, and again fried with ghee. Krisara is a kind of liquid food made of milk, sesame, rice, sugar, and spices. Sashkuli is a kind of pie. Payasa is rice boiled in sugar and milk.
Antarddhane implies 'in darkness'; hence one should always examine the bed with a light before one lies down on it.
Pranan, the commentator explains, implies the upper holes of the body, such as the nostrils, the ear-holes and the eyes.
The Brahmana is more powerful than the other two, for while the other two cannot injure except when they have their foe within sight, the Brahmana can do so even by not seeing his enemy.
The custom in India, with especially all orthodox Brahmanas, is to wear a single flower on the head, inserted into the coronal lock. This flower may be a red one, it is said, after the prohibition in the previous verse about the wearing of garlands made of red flowers.
What is stated here is that dry perfumes should not be used, but those which are pounded with water and made into a paste.
The cloth worn by a Hindu has two lateral fringes which contain a lesser number of threads than the body of the cloth.
It has been said that Hinduism is a vast system of personal hygiene. These directions about change of attire are scrupulously observed by every rigid Hindu to this day. No change seems to have taken place in the daily habits of the people.
Priyangu is the Aglaia Roxburghiana. Vilwa is the Egle marmelos. Tagara is the Taberuaemontana coronaria, Linn. Kesara is probably the Eclipta alba, Hassk.
Na is the nom. sing. of Nri, implying man.
One of the Vernacular translations takes valena as signifying child and para-sraddha as meaning the first or adya sraddha.
This noise refers to that of chewing or sucking or licking, etc. It is an ugly habit with some people.
Doubting, for example, as to whether he would be able to digest it or not, or whether what he is taking is clean or not, or whether it would be too much for him.
In offering certain articles at the Sraddha, the articles are first placed on this part of the right hand and then offered with due Mantras to the Pitris.
The achamana is not exactly washing, when one is directed to perform the achamana after having eaten, there it, of course, implies an act of washing. At the commencement, however, of religious acts, the rite of achamana consists in merely touching the lips and some other parts with water.
The Brahmana's aid is necessary in selecting the ground, and settling the longitudinal and other directions of the house, as also in fixing the day of commencing the work of building.
I adopt the meaning which Nilakantha points out. According to him, this verse forbids the killing of birds at night time and their killing after having fed and adopted them. Indeed, one may buy such birds killed by others for food. The word Dwija, however, may mean both hair and nails. The first part of the line, therefore, may be taken as a prohibition against the cutting of hair and nails after eating. The words na samarcha reta, in that case, would be difficult to interpret. Probably, it is this that has led the commentator to take Dwija here for a bird. Some texts read panam for na cha.
Pravaras indicate the race in which one is born. They are named from the names of the Vedic Rishis.
The commentator explains that ayonim implies of unknown birth and viyonim of mean birth.
Brahmanih here refers to the rituals in the Vedas and not persons of the first order.
The fact is, one is directed to bathe after a shave. One is considered impure after a shave until one bathes.
Uddesa means, as the commentator explains, in brief.
The word rendered conduct in the concluding verse of this lesson is acharah. It implies not only one's behaviour to one's own self and others, i.e., to beings inferior, equal, and superior. The word acharah, therefore, includes the entire body of acts that one does in this life, including the very sentiments that one cherishes.
The flower of the cane cannot be plucked for being offered to the deities.
An Acharya is an ordinary instructor. He is called an Upadhyaya who teaches the Vedas. The Upadhyaya is greater than even ten Acharyas or ordinary teachers. The father, again, deserves ten times as much respect as is paid to the Upadhyaya. As regards the mother, again, the reverence due to her is greater than what is due to the father. The mother is equal to the whole earth.
Many of the verses of this Lesson are from Manu. The relative positions of the Acharya, the Upadhyaya, the father, and the mother, as given in verse 15, is not consistent with Manu. Verse 15 would show that the Upadhyaya was regarded as very much superior of the Acharya. In Manu, II--140-41, he is called an Acharya who taught all the Vedas, without any remuneration. He, on the other hand, who taught a particular Veda for a living, was called an Upadhyaya. The first line of verse 19 corresponds with Manu, II--148. The sense is that that birth which one derives from one's parents is subject to death; while the birth derived from the preceptor is true regeneration, unfading and immortal. It is a question whether any other nation paid such respect to persons employed in teaching.
Kanchi is an ornament worn by ladies round the waist or hips. There is a shining disc of gold or silver, which dangles on the hip. It is commonly called Chandra-hara. The Nupura is an anklet of silver, with moving bullets placed within, so that when the wearer moves, these make an agreeable sound.
In verse 3, Avaguna means Nirguna; Ekatma means alone and asamhta implies without associates i.e., helpless.
A Padma is a very large number. Instead of rendering such words exactly, I have, in some of the preceding verses, following the sense, put down 'millions upon millions of years.'
Avartanani means years. Four and twelve make sixteen, Sara is arrow. The arrows are five in number as possessed by Kama, the deity of love. The number of fires also is seven. The compound saragniparimana, therefore, implies five and thirty. Adding this to sixteen, the total comes up to one and fifty.
A countless number almost.
Here the exact number of years is not stated.
Some of the most beautiful ladies in Indian mythology and history have been of dark complexion. Draupadi, the queen of the Pandavas, was dark in colour and was called Krishna. As to women called Syamas, the description given is that their bodies are warm in winter and cold in summer, and their complexion is like that of heated gold.
A very large figure is given.
This sacrifice consisted of the slaughter of a human being.
The exact number of years is given, consisting of a fabulous figure.
Abhravakasasila is explained by Nilakantha as having the attribute of the Avakasa or place of Abhra or the clouds. Hence, as stainless as the ether, which, of course, is the purest of all the elements.
Sacrifices have for their soul either the actual rites laid down in the scriptures or fasts of several kinds. The observance of fasts is equal to the performance of sacrifices, for the merits of both are equal.
The word Tirtha as already explained (in the Santi Parva) means a sacred water. There can be no Tirtha without water, be it a river, a lake, or even a well. Bhishma, however, chooses to take the word in a different sense.
The language is figurative. By Manasa is not meant the trans-Himalayan lake of that name, which to this day is regarded as highly sacred and draws numerous pilgrims from all parts of India. The word is used to signify the Soul. It is fathomless in consequence of nobody being able to discover its origin. It is pure and stainless by nature. It is represented here as having Truth for its waters and the Understanding for its lake. Probably, what is meant by this is that the Understanding, containing the waters of Truth, forms a part of this Tirtha as the lakes of Pushkara form a part of the Tirtha called by that name.
Once freed from the idea of meum implies him who identifies himself with all creatures; him, that is, in whom the idea of self has been extinguished.
Such a man, through the merit he acquires, causes his deceased ancestors and descendants to be freed from every kind of misery in the next world.
In the Naramedha, a human being was offered up as the sacrifice.
The sense seems to be this: One that is not possessed of much learning is liable to do improper acts. These acts are all done for another, viz., one's body and the senses and not oneself. The para here is, the Not-self.
Nichayam is, as explained by the commentator Avasthitim.
The sense is that when these leave the body, they are accompanied by Righteousness.
Intermediate, i.e., between deities and human beings; hence, animals and birds.
Brahma-Rakshasa is a Rakshasa that belongs, like Ravana and others, by birth to the regenerate order.
Masha is Phaseolus Roxburghii, Kulatta is Dolichos biflosus, Roxb. Kalaya is Pisum Sativum, Linn. Mudga is Phaseolus Mango, Linn. Atasi is Linum usitattisimam, Linn.
A Kanka is a bird of prey.
He is repeatedly struck with the clubs and hammers and mallets. He is frequently impaled. He is confined with fiery vessels. He is dragged with forests of sword-blades. He is made to walk over heated sand. He is rubbed against thorny Salmalis. The Salmali is the Bombox Malabaricum.
The commentator explains that Nishpava means Rajamasha which is a kind of bears. It is the Dolichas catjung. Halagolaka is a long-tailed worm.
A Krikara is a kind of partridge. It is spelt also as Krikala or Krikana. A Vartaka is a sort of quail.
Tailapayin is, literally, one that drinks oil. That name is applied to a cockroach.
Vyathitah and vyadhitah are the correct readings.
That day is sterile or lost in which no gift is made of food.
Kama and krodha are mentioned: but the use of cha gives by implication cupidity. What is meant by nidhaya sarvabhuteshu is, dividing them into infinite small parts, to cast them off from oneself to others. It is painful to see how the Burdwan translators misunderstand verses 2 and 3. They read Hanti for Hanta and write ridiculous nonsense.
In the first line, after Sarvabhutani, atmatwena is understood. The sense of this verse seems to be this: such a man leaves no trace behind him, for he becomes identified with Brahma. He is, therefore, said to be apada. The deities on the other hand, are padaishinah, for they desire a fixed abode such as heaven or a spot fraught with felicity.
The sense is that when one refuses a solicitation one should think how one would feel if another were to refuse the solicitations one addressed to that other. So with regard to the rest.
By committing a slaughter, one becomes guilty of it. By inciting others to it one becomes guilty. By mentally committing an act of slaughter, one becomes guilty of it.
i.e. by eating meat, one feels the desire for meat increasing. A taste or predilection for meat is thus created. Hence, the best course is total abstinence.
The sense is this: he who observes the vow of abstention from injury comes to be regarded as the giver of life-breaths in this world. The assurance given to all creatures of never injuring them on any occasion is the Dakshina or Sacrificial present of the great sacrifice that is constituted by universal compassion or abstention from injury.
Mansa is flesh. This verse explains the etymology of the word, Mam (me) sa; Me he eateth, therefore, I shall eat him. The words following Me he should be supplied in order to get at the meaning.
The sense is this: one, while endued with a human body injures another, the consequences of that injury the doer will suffer in his human body. One becomes a tiger and slays a deer. The consequences of that act one will have to endure while one becomes reborn as a tiger.
What the sage says is that the fact of the worm's being able to recollect the incidents of his past life is due to some meritorious act. That meritorious act is the very sight of the sage which the worm has been fortunate to obtain.
The sense is that among human beings also, acts are done with the intention of securing happiness. In other words, human beings also enjoy the fruits of their good acts and endure those of their evil ones.
Literally, the verse runs,--'what is that which would forsake a creature that is destitute of etc.,' meaning that such a creature has been already forsaken by everything. Hence, 'the worm that is destitute of speech, etc.' is destitute of everything. Its condition is really fraught with great misery.
Jugupsita smritih jata is the paraphrase.
Swairini-kule implies, as the commentator explains, the race of Munis. Swam (Dharamaya) irayati is the etymology. Ajnata-charitam-dharan applied to Krishna-Dwaipayana. If it be read charam it would refer to Maitreya.
Prithagatman implies one whose soul is still invested with upadhis; Sukhatman is one whose soul has transcended all upadhis.
This literal version of the verse yields no sense. The meaning, however, is this: Atichccheda or Atichcchanda implies a hyperbolic statement, Ativaua means a paradox. It is said that by gift of even a palmful of water one may attain to a place which is attainable by a hundred sacrifices. This ordinance, which looks like a hyperbole, and its statement by Vedic teachers that looks like a paradox, fill me with wonder. The Vedas say that no one attains to such a place without a hundred sacrifices. This seems to be untrue, for people do reach it by making even slight gifts to deserving persons at proper times.
The sense is that those who pursue carnal pleasures meet with misery as the end, and those who practise austerities meet with felicity as their reward.
To obtain a sight of thee is the reward or result of my own acts. A sight of thy person leads to prosperity, through the kindness thou cherishest for us.
The sense is that an ascetic observant of penances, in whatever stage, and a man possessed of omniscience, are regarded as equal.
Such an object can never be accomplished. Hence thy paleness and leanness.
Though completely innocent, thou hast yet been cursed. The anxiety due to this has made thee so.
Yamena praptam is the sense, as explained by the commentator.
The sense is this: one should not accept gifts made by a butcher or slayer of animals. Ten butchers are equal to a single oilman. By accepting a gift from an oilman, therefore, one incurs ten times as much sin as by accepting a gift from a butcher. In this way, the measure of sin goes on increasing according to the ratio given. A Nripa, as explained by the commentator, means here a small chief. A small king is equal to ten thousand butchers. A great king, however, is equal to half of that, i.e., five thousand butchers. In other words, by accepting a gift from a great king, a man incurs as much sin as is a full five thousand times of the sin which is incurred by accepting a gift from a butcher.
The reason is the declarations in the scriptures to that effect.
The sense, as explained by the commentator, is this: the Brahmana who becomes the Ritwik and eats at a Sraddha becomes a Pitri of the person performing the Sraddha. Hence, when his identity has been changed, he should, on that day, abstain from sexual congress with even his own spouse. By indulging in such congress, he incurs the sin of adultery.
Batakashaya is explained by the commentator as substance that is named by pounding the hanging roots of the banian. The Priyangu here mentioned is not the Aglaia Roxburghiana but the seed called Rajasarshapa, i.e., Brassica juncea; Sinapis ramasa, Roxb. The Shashtika paddy is that which ripens in sixty days.
The sense seems to be that the libations, few and far between, of men who do not daily worship their fire are not borne by the fire to the destined places.
Kshirapah means those that depend on the lacteal sustenance, hence, little children.
Aurddhsadehikam danam means gifts made in course of Sraddhas and other rites that are observed for improving the position of a deceased person.
What is meant by the gift of lamps is the lighting of lamps in the sky. These are placed on long poles which are fastened to the tallest trees.
The commentator explains that when evening comes, one should respectfully salute one's own feet. This custom has certainly died out in Bengal. A whirl is certainly observable on cowdung when it first drops from the cow; but the practice of making offering to it has also died out.
The second line seems to be unintelligible. The reading I take is Sraddheshu and not Schidreshu.
Vows and fasts, &c., should be observed after the Sankalpa or Resolution to that effect has been formally enunciated. Even a plunge in a piece of sacred water cannot be productive of merit unless the Sankalpa has been formally enunciated. The Sankalpa is the enunciation of the purpose for which the act is performed as also of the act that is intended to be performed.
Vrishalipati literally means the husband of a Sudra woman. By actually marrying a woman of the lowest order, by marrying before the elder brother, by marrying a girl that has attained to puberty, and by certain other acts, a Brahmana comes to be regarded as a Vrishalipati.
Kutapa is the hour about noontide. The shade of the elephant's body implies a particular instant of time that is regarded as very favourable for the Sraddha. The man that performs such a Sraddha is regarded as acquiring the merits attaching to Sraddhas regularly performed for thirteen years.
In India the tooth-brush consists of a twig or a little branch. One end of it is chewed and softened. The softened fibres serve the purpose of a brush. Such a brush is used only once. It is thrown away after the brushing of the teeth is over.
It is difficult to identify what plants are meant by Karanjaka and Suvarachala.
Bhanda includes utensils of copper and brass such as plates and cups and jars and jugs. Broken utensils, to this day, are regarded inauspicious. They are rejected, as a rule, by every family. Kali (Evil?) has his abode in them, meaning that such utensils cause quarrels and disputes. Broken bed-steads also are regarded as capable of causing loss of wealth. Cocks and dogs should never be kept or reared in a house. The roots of trees afford shelter to scorpions and snakes and venomous insects and worms. One should not, therefore, plant trees or allow them to grow up within one's abode.
A Brahmana's fire should never be ignited by a Sudra. Women also should never be allowed to assist at Sraddhas for arranging the offerings.
Pramathas are the ghostly companions of Mahadeva. Literally, the name implies smiters.
Anujnatah literally implies permitted. These creatures, i.e., the kine, were permitted by me, means, perhaps, that they became my favourites. Brahman, it is said, solicited Maheswara to accept some kine in gift. The latter did accept some, and adopt from that time the device of the bull on his flag.
Sambhrama here means, probably, joy, or that gratification which shows itself in horripilation. It may also mean alacrity.
Upavasa here, as explained by the commentator, is used for Indriyajaya or subjugation of the senses.
He who takes his meals at the proper hours is said to observe fasts. He who avoids sexual congress with other women and associates with only his wedded spouse and that at her season, is said to observe Brahmacharya.
To sell the Vedas or any kind of knowledge is a great sin.
The correct reading of the latter half of the first line is nabaram natirogratah. The commentator explains, this means that 'there is nothing inferior to it or beside it or before it.' In the first part of the first line it has been said that there is nothing superior to it. The sense is that it includes all, being as comprehensive as Brahman.
Samprakshalas are those Rishis who wash all their utensils daily so that nothing is stored for them for the next day. Asmakuttas are those that use only two pieces of stone for husking their grain. Dantolukhalas are those that use their teeth for purposes of husking the grain they eat.
Swasarirapa-jivishu implies persons that do not stand in need of the services of others for the support of their bodies.
The great forests are called Virasthana for cowards cannot enter or reside in them.
Marum samsadhya implies abstention from even air and water as food or means of subsistence.
It should be noted that the word Vira in the various compounds in which it occurs here, does not mean heroes of war. On the other hand, it signifies heroes of righteousness and penances. The path of heroes is the forest, for cowards cannot go there. The attitude of heroes (Virasana) is a kind of attitude for Yogins to sit in.
Nisargat is literally through creation or original nature, or birth. Of course, what is implied is that one becomes a Brahmana, or Kshatriya, or Vaisya or Sudra, through original creation as such, by the Self-born, that is, birth.
Ugra means a fierce or cruel person. It is also applied to signify a person of a mixed caste whose occupation is the slaughter of animals in the chase. The commentator is silent. I think, the food supplied by a fierce or cruel person is meant here. What is said in this verse is that the several kinds of food spoken of here should be renounced by a good Brahmana.
The sense is this: if a Brahmana dies with any portion of the food of a Sudra, a Vaisya, or a Kshatriya in his stomach, in his next life he has to take birth as a Sudra, a Vaisya, or a Kshatriya. If, again, during life he subsists upon food supplied to him by a Sudra, a Vaisya, or a Kshatriya, he has to take birth in his next life as a Sudra, a Vaisya, or a Kshatriya.
Kundasin means a pander. It may also imply one who eats from off the vessel in which the food eaten has been cooked without, that is, using plates or leaves.
The sense seems to be this: a Vaisya ultimately becomes a Brahmana by observing the duties indicated in verses 30 to 33. As the immediate reward, however, of his observance of these duties, he becomes a great Kshatriya. What he should next do in order to become a Brahmana is said in the verses that follow.
This may, besides, imply the taking of a sixth portion of the merits acquired by his subjects through the righteous deeds they perform.
In India an inferior should always stand aside for letting his superior pass. The Kshatriya should give way to the Brahmana, the Vaisya to the Kshatriya, and the Sudra to the Vaisya.
i.e. Soul (including the Supreme Soul) and Not-soul.
Gauri is another name for Earth.
The Nadies or Rivers are feminine. Of course, among Rivers there are some that are masculine, notably, the Sindhu or Indus. Tirthas are places with sacred waters.
One who is free from vanity or arrogance deserves to be called Purusha. The absence of vanity is implied by soliciting the help of others even when one is competent oneself. Females follow females, such being their nature. It is a compliment that Parvati pays to Siva for Siva's questioning her when he himself is well-acquainted with the topic upon which she is asked to discourse.
The word Sindhu in this verse does not imply the river Indus, but stands for a river in general. Grammatically, it qualifies Devika before it. Devika is another name of Sarayu.
According to the Hindu scriptures, marriage is not a contract. It is the union of two individuals of opposite sexes into one person for better performance of all deeds of piety.
Trivikrama is one who covered the three worlds with three steps of his. It implies Vishnu who assumed the form of a dwarf for beguiling the Asura king Vali.
The sense seems to be this: Thou knowest all things, all mysteries, yet Thou canst bear all this knowledge within Thyself. We, however, are so light-minded, i.e., destitute of gravity, that we are unable to bear within ourselves the knowledge of a mystery. As soon as we got that knowledge from Mahadeva, we felt the desire of letting it out; and, indeed, we have let it out at thy request, and let out unto whom?--unto one that must be secretly laughing at us for our seeming pride.
It is said that no person wishes to be vanquished by another in respect of anything. The only one whose victory or superiority, however, is bearable or, rather, prayed for, is the son. Hence, the Rishis wish unto Krishna a son even superior to him.
The ward Pushti literally signifies growth or advancement. Hence, it stands generally for excellence of greatness.
The correct reading is not pratisrayam but pratisravam which means promise or pledge.
The pledge, probably, refers to the oaths taken by Bhima and others about the slaughter of the Kauravas.
The sense is this: the king acquires great merit by wielding the rod of chastisement properly, i.e., by punishing those that deserve punishment. The infliction of punishment is what keeps the subjects within the restraints of duty. The rod of chastisement, therefore, is the very embodiment of the righteousness or merit of the king.
Vasudeva is Narayana, and Arjuna is Nara. Nara and Narayana had practised severe penances at Vadari on the breast of the Himavat for many thousand years. Vyasa afterwards adopted Vadari as his retreat.
The Hindu sages never attempt to speculate on the original creation of the universe. Their speculations, however, are concerned with what is called Avantara srishti or that creation which springs forth with the awakening of Brahman. Creation and Destruction have occurred ceaselessly and will occur ceaselessly. The original creation is impossible to conceive as Eternity cannot have a beginning.
Putatman means, of cleansed Soul. This implies that though He is the Lord or ruler of all existent objects, yet He is dissociated from them. The Refuge of the Emancipated--Comp. Gita, 'Mamupetya tu Kaunteya punarjanma na vidyate,' etc., Purusha is He that lies in a pura or the nine-doored mansion, i.e., the body. Sakshi or Witness implies that He sees all things directly, without any medium obstructing His vision. Kshetrajna implies the Chit lying within the body and who knows the body; however, being inert, is not cognisant of the Chit it holds.
He is called Yoga because of the mind resting upon Him while it is in Yoga abstraction. Pradhana, in Sankhya philosophy, is another name of Prakriti or original Nature. All things have sprung from the union of Prakriti and Purusha. Vasudeva, however, transcends Prakriti and Purusha and is their Lord. Narasinghavapu--He assumed the human form with a lion's head for slaying the Asura Hiranyakasipu, the father of Prahlada.
Sarva implies the source of all existent and non-existent things and that in which all existent and non-existent things become merged at the universal dissolution. Sambhava signifies Him who takes birth at His own will. Acts cannot touch him. The birth of all other beings is determined by their acts in previous lives. Com. Gita, Paritranaya sadhunam etc. sambhavami yuge yuge. Bhuvana means one who attaches to acts their respective fruits i.e., he in consequence of whom the weal and woe of all creatures flow as due to acts.
Sambhu implies one whose birth has not been determined by extraneous circumstances, or other influences than his own wish, the birth of all other creatures being determined by forces extraneous to themselves. Aditya may also mean the foremost one among the deities especially called the Adityas. They are twelve in number. Dhatri may also imply one who upholds everything in the universe by multiplying Himself infinitely. Dhaturuttama may, besides, signify one who as Chit is superior to all elements like Earth, Water, etc., which constitute all that is not-Chit.
Aprameya is, literally, immeasurable. Sankara thus explains it: He has no such attributes as sound, etc; in consequence of this He is not an object of direct perception by the sense; nor can He be an object of inference, in consequence of there being nothing to which belong the same attributes as His, etc. His inconceivability is the foundation of His immeasurableness. Hrishikesa is regarded by European scholars as a doubtful word. The Hindu commentators do not regard it so. It implies the lord of the senses i.e., One who has his sense under complete control. Or, it may mean One who sways the sense of others, i.e., causes them to exercise their functions. Sankara proposes another meaning, viz. He that is the form of the Sun or the Moon and as such, the rays of light emanating from those luminaries and gladdening all creatures, are the hairs on His head. Manu is another name for Mantra or sacred words having great efficacy.
Krishna is one of the foremost names of the supreme God-head. It means One who is always in transports of joy. It is derived from krish which implies to be, and na meaning final Emancipation or cessation of existence; the compound probably means One in whom every attribute has been extinguished; hence, absence of change, of sorrow, of gift, etc., or, eternal and highest joy. Lohitaksha is Red-eyed, from His eyes being of the hue of polished copper. Pratardana, according to Sankara, means the killer of all creatures. Others take it as implying one who destroys the cheerlessness of his worshippers. Prabhuta is One who is Great or Vast in consequence of Knowledge, Puissance, Energy, and Renunciation, etc.; Pavitram, Mangalam, Param should be taken as one name, although each of them has a separate meaning.
Pranada is interpreted variously. It may mean He that causes the life-breaths to operate; He that, as Time suspends the life-breaths (i.e., kills all creatures); He that connects the life-breaths (i.e., set them a-going when threatened with extinction; hence, healer of diseases). Prana implies He who is the cause of the life of every living creature being Himself, as it were, the life-breath that inspires them. Hiranyagarbha signifies He that is identical with the Grandsire. Bhugarbha is one who has the Earth for his abdomen, implying that all things on Earth are in His abdomen.
Atmavan, other Beings are said to be Sariravan, Indriyavan, etc., in consequence of the possession of such attributes as Sarira, Indriya, etc. But the Supreme God-head is nothing but soul. He rests on his own true nature or essence without requiring anything extraneous like the deities or human beings whereon to live or exist,
Aha is the day; He is so called because of Jiva being, as it were, awakened when he goes to Him. As long as Jiva is at a distance from Him, he is steeped in the sleep of Avidya or Nescience (a happy word which Professor Max Muller has coined) Samvatsara or the year. He is so called because Time is His essence. Vyala--He is a huge and fierce snake that inspires dread.
Vrishakapi is otherwise explained by Valadeva Vidyabhushan, as He that showers blessings upon His worshippers and causes all His foes to tremble with fear.
Vishnu is supposed to be within the constellation called Sisumara or the Northern Bear. The stars, without changing their places per se, seem to revolve round this point within the constellation named.
In India, no man should worship the deities, with a full stomach. Indeed, one must abstain from every kind of food and drink if one has to worship the deities formally.
Rama of Bhrigu's race went to Mahadeva for acquiring the science of arms. While dwelling in Siva's retreat, he had a quarrel with Karttikeya or Kumara, the son of Siva's loins. Rama worsted his preceptor's son in battle, at which his preceptor, gratified with him, made him a present of his own battle-axe, wherewith the regenerate hero exterminated the Kshatriyas for full one and twenty times.
Many of these words beginning with Mahat represent Krishna's own words as spoken to Arjuna in the Gita. 'I am the foremost of sacrifices; I am the foremost of sacrificers,' etc.
Referring to Hanumat and others among the apes that Rama led against Ravana.
The universe consists of Soul and Not-soul. Jiva, when cased in matter or Not-soul takes Not-soul for himself, in his ignorance. In fact until true knowledge is attained, the body is taken for self.
The sense is that untimely deaths do not occur in such places; nor fear of oppression or unlawful chastisement by the king; etc.
The Bengal reading mrishtascha varina is incorrect. The Bombay reading mrishtasya varinsha is correct.
The word kavi used in this verse, means Agni or fire, as explained by the commentator. One of the vernacular translators wrongly takes it as implying the preceptor Sukara.
The last verse, as read in the Bengal texts, is vicious. Nastyandam astitu Brahma, etc., is the correct reading.
To an afflicted person the day seems long.
The sense is that it is this Kesava who upholds the cause of Righteousness when dangers overtake it, cf. 'Yada yada hi dharmasya, etc.' in the Gita. It does not mean that when doubts are entertained by persons on questions of morality, it is Kesava who dispels them.
Refers to the existence of Brahma when all else is nought.
The fivefold seed consists of the four orders of creatures and acts which determine the conditions of all beings.
Eagle marmelos, Linn.
Durvasa is regarded as a portion of Mahadeva. The question of Yudhishthira, therefore, really relates to Mahadeva although the name that occurs is of Durvasa.
A Parvam is a knot. Reeds and bamboos consist of a series of knots. The space between two knots is called a Salya.
The allusion is to the fiery mare's head which is supposed to wander through the ocean.
Verses 4 to 9 are extremely difficult. They represent so many surceases. Nilakantha, however, has shown great ingenuity in expounding them. In the first line of 4, drishtam refers to pratyaksham, and srutam to sruti or agama. Hence, what is meant by the first line is,--Innumerable are the cases of both direct perception and scriptural assertion in which the scriptures are regarded as more authoritative, and those is which direct perception is regarded as more authoritative. In 5, the speaker refers to the atomic and other theories of the creation derived from Reason. Bhishma declares it as his opinion that all such theories are untenable or groundless. In the first line of 6, the word Ekam implies Brahma. The sense is, if thou thinkest that Brahma alone is the cause of the universe and in thinking so becomest landed on doubt. The reply to this is that Yoga for a long course of years will enable thee to comprehend the sufficiency of unassisted Brahma to evolve the universe. In 7, anekam pranayatram kalpamanena refers to one who without leading any particular or settled mode of life lives just as it suits him to live, that is, who leads the life of a religious mendicant never thinking of the morrow. In 9, anihaddham vacha implies what is not defined or indicated by the words of the Vedas or scriptures. The Burdwan Pundits have made a mess of the whole passage, or, rather, of nearly the whole of this section.
Teshu is equivalent to praryakshanumanachareshu. The sense, therefore, is that the three, viz., direct perception, inference, and good conduct being, for these reasons, fallible, the only infallible standard that remain, is audition of the scriptures, or, as verse 14 puts it, men with understandings born of the scriptures.
Atripyantah are men who like Yudhishthira are filled with anxiety as to what they should do. Seekers after the right are so called.
The five who must be first fed are the deities, the Pitris, the guests, diverse creatures included under the word Bhutus, and lastly relatives.
Some texts read nabhibhavet, meaning one should never vanquish an old man (i.e., assert one's superiority over him).
In his excellent work on the Curiosities of Literature Mr. D'Israeli attempts to trace the origin of the custom of uttering a blessing on people who sneeze. The custom seems, however, to be very ancient and widespread. It exists to this day in India, among the Hindus at any rate, as it existed in the days of the Mahabharata.
It seems that the author is of opinion that one lightens one's sins by admissions before the wise. To conceal a sin after having committed it proves the confirmed sinner.
'Covered by righteousness' implies 'if, having once tripped, the sinner restrains himself and engages to do acts of righteousness.'
What is stated here is this: the condition of all living creatures is determined by their acts of this and past lives. Nature, again, is the cause of acts. What of felicity and misery, therefore, one sees in this world, must be ascribed to these two causes. As regards the self also, O Yudhishthira, thou art not freed from that universal law. Do thou, therefore, cease to cherish doubts of any kind. If thou seest a learned man that is poor, or an ignorant man that is wealthy, if thou seest exertion failing and the absence of exertion leading to success, thou must always ascribe the result to acts and Nature.
What is stated here is this: one may become righteous by accomplishing oneself righteous deeds or inducing or helping others to do them. Similarly, one becomes unrighteous by doing oneself acts that are evil or by inducing or helping others to do them.
Righteousness leads to regions of felicity. The former is said to be eternal, while the latter are not so. The question asked (or doubt raised) is why is the effect not eternal when the cause is eternal? It is explained below.
There are two kinds of Righteousness, viz., nishkama and sakama. The former leads to attainment of Brahma, the latter to heaven and felicity. Brahma is eternal; the latter not so. Nishkama Righteousness being eternal, leads to an eternal reward. Sakama Righteousness not being so, does not lead to an eternal reward. The word Kala here means Sankalpa, hence Dhruvahkalah means nishkama Dharma.
Here, Calah means 'Sankalpa'.

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